📚 Year 13 CCEA Sociology: Key Terms Revision Guide | Year 13 CCEA 社会学：核心术语速记指南
This revision guide collects the most essential key terms for Year 13 CCEA Sociology, carefully selected from the A2 topics of Theory & Methods, Social Inequality, and Crime & Deviance. Each term is explained in clear language with its Chinese equivalent to help bilingual learners strengthen conceptual understanding and memory retention.
本速记指南汇集了 Year 13 CCEA 社会学最核心的术语，精心选自 A2 阶段的理论与方法、社会不平等以及犯罪与越轨三大主题。每个术语均用清晰的语言进行解释并提供对应的中文，帮助双语学习者加深概念理解与记忆。
1. Positivism and Interpretivism | 实证主义与解释主义
Positivism – An approach that treats sociology as a science and emphasises the use of quantitative methods, objectivity, and the search for causal laws. Key thinkers: Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim. It assumes that social reality exists independently and can be measured.
实证主义 – 一种将社会学视为科学的取向，强调使用定量方法、客观性和寻找因果规律。代表人物：孔德、涂尔干。其假设社会现实独立存在并可测量。
Interpretivism – A contrasting approach arguing that humans are fundamentally different from natural phenomena; sociology needs to uncover meanings and motives through qualitative methods. Key thinkers: Max Weber (verstehen), Herbert Blumer.
解释主义 – 与实证主义相对，主张人类与自然现象有本质区别；社会学需要透过定性方法揭示意义与动机。关键概念：韦伯的“理解”(verstehen)，布鲁默的符号互动论。
Verstehen – Weber’s concept of empathic understanding; the researcher aims to grasp the subjective meanings social actors attach to their actions.
理解 (Verstehen) – 韦伯提出的移情性理解概念；研究者尝试把握社会行动者赋予其行动的主观意义。
Hypothetico-deductive Method – A positivist model: start with a theory, deduce a hypothesis, test it with empirical observations, confirm or falsify. Associated with Karl Popper’s falsification principle.
假说-演绎法 – 实证主义的研究模型：从理论出发，演绎出假设，用经验观察检验，证实或证伪。与波普尔的证伪原则相关。
Value Freedom – The principle, championed by positivists, that researchers should remain neutral and not let their personal values distort the research process.
价值中立 – 实证主义倡导的原则，研究者应保持中立，不让人个价值观扭曲研究过程。
2. Key Sociological Theories | 主要社会学理论
Functionalism – A consensus theory that sees society as a system of interrelated institutions each performing functions that maintain social order and stability. Analogy: the human body (organic analogy). Key thinkers: Durkheim, Parsons, Merton.
功能主义 – 一种共识理论，将社会视为由相互关联的制度组成的系统，每个制度执行维持社会秩序和稳定的功能。类比：人体（有机体类比）。代表人物：涂尔干、帕森斯、默顿。
Marxism – A conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx; society is divided by class conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers). The economic base shapes the superstructure.
马克思主义 – 基于马克思思想的冲突理论；社会因资产阶级（生产资料占有者）与无产阶级（工人）之间的阶级冲突而分裂。经济基础决定上层建筑。
Feminism – A conflict theory that focuses on gender inequality and patriarchy. Liberal feminism advocates legal reforms; radical feminism sees male domination as the root cause; Marxist feminism links gender oppression to capitalism.
女性主义 – 关注性别不平等与父权制的冲突理论。自由女性主义倡导法律改革；激进女性主义将男性统治视为根源；马克思主义女性主义将性别压迫与资本主义相联系。
Interactionism (Symbolic Interactionism) – A micro-level theory arguing that society is constructed through everyday interactions and the meanings people attach to things. Key concepts: labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy, negotiated order.
互动论（符号互动论） – 微观层面的理论，认为社会通过日常互动及人们对事物赋予的意义而建构。关键概念：标签、自我实现预言、商定秩序。
New Right – A political perspective blending neoliberal economics with conservative social values, often applied to family studies and education. Emphasises individual responsibility, free markets, and traditional morality.
新右派 – 融合新自由主义经济学与保守社会价值观的政治视角，常应用于家庭和教育研究。强调个人责任、自由市场与传统道德。
3. Research Methods: Quantitative | 研究方法：定量方法
Official Statistics – Secondary data collected by governments or official bodies (e.g., crime records, divorce statistics). Strengths: large scale, readily available, comparative. Weaknesses: may reflect bias in recording, socially constructed.
官方统计资料 – 由政府或官方机构收集的二手数据（如犯罪记录、离婚统计）。优点：规模大、易获取、可比较。缺点：可能反映记录过程中的偏差，具社会建构性。
Structured Interview – A face-to-face questionnaire where all respondents are asked the same set of pre-coded questions. High reliability, suitable for positivist research.
结构式访谈 – 面对面的问卷调查，所有被访者被询问相同的一组预编码问题。信度高，适用于实证主义研究。
Longitudinal Study – A study that follows the same sample over an extended period to track changes. Examples: the British Cohort Studies. Can reveal long-term trends but suffers from sample attrition.
纵向研究 – 对同一样本进行长期跟踪的研究，以追踪变化。例如英国的世代研究。能揭示长期趋势，但存在样本流失问题。
Comparative Method – A method used to compare different societies or groups to test hypotheses, often employed when experiments are impossible or unethical. Durkheim’s study of suicide used this.
比较法 – 通过比较不同社会或群体来检验假设的方法，常在实验不可能或不道德时采用。涂尔干的《自杀论》运用了此法。
Operationalisation – The process of turning abstract concepts (e.g., ‘social class’, ‘educational achievement’) into measurable variables so they can be tested quantitatively.
操作化 – 将抽象概念（如“社会阶级”、“教育成就”）转化为可测量变量的过程，以便进行定量检验。
4. Research Methods: Qualitative | 研究方法：定性方法
Participant Observation – The researcher joins the group being studied, often covertly or overtly, to gain an in-depth, insider account. High validity but raises ethical issues. Example: Laud Humphreys’ tearoom trade.
参与观察 – 研究者加入所研究群体（公开或隐蔽），以获得深度的内部视角。效度高，但引发伦理问题。例如汉弗莱斯的公厕交易研究。
Unstructured Interview – A flexible, conversation-like interview with open-ended questions. Allows respondents to express their meanings fully; high validity, low reliability.
非结构式访谈 – 灵活、对话式的访谈，采用开放式问题。允许被访者充分表达其意义；效度高，信度低。
Personal Documents – Sources such as diaries, letters, and autobiography used by interpretivist researchers to access subjective experiences. Thomas and Znaniecki’s ‘The Polish Peasant’ is a classic example.
个人文献 – 解释主义研究者使用的日记、信件、自传等资料，以获取主观体验。托马斯与兹纳涅茨基的《身处欧美的波兰农民》为经典案例。
Case Study – An in-depth study of a single case (a person, school, gang) using multiple methods. Provides rich detail but limited generalisability.
个案研究 – 运用多种方法对单一案例（个人、学校、帮派）进行的深入研究。细节丰富，但推广性有限。
Gatekeeper – A person in a research setting who controls access to the group or information. Building trust with gatekeepers is often essential for ethnographic research.
守门人 – 研究场景中控制接触群体或信息的人。与守门人建立信任通常是民族志研究的关键。
5. Sampling and Ethical Issues | 抽样与伦理议题
Sampling Frame – The list from which a sample is drawn (e.g., electoral register, school rolls). A faulty or incomplete frame leads to sampling bias.
抽样框 – 抽取样本所依据的名单（如选民登记册、学校名册）。有缺陷或不完整的抽样框会导致抽样偏差。
Random Sampling – Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. Likely to produce a representative sample, used in positivist research.
随机抽样 – 目标总体中的每个成员都有均等的被选机会。很可能产生代表性样本，用于实证主义研究。
Snowball Sampling – Used when the target group is hard to reach or hidden; existing participants recruit further participants. Often used in crime or sensitive topic research.
滚雪球抽样 – 当目标群体难以接触或隐蔽时使用；现有参与者招募更多参与者。常用于犯罪或敏感议题研究。
Informed Consent – Participants must fully understand the nature and purpose of the research and freely agree to take part. A fundamental ethical safeguard.
知情同意 – 参与者必须充分理解研究的性质与目的，并自愿同意参与。一项基本的伦理保障。
Covert Research – The researcher’s true identity and purpose are hidden. May produce valid data but is ethically controversial because of deception and lack of consent.
隐蔽研究 – 研究者的真实身份和目的被隐藏。可能产生真实有效的数据，但因欺骗和缺乏同意而带来伦理争议。
6. Social Class Stratification | 社会阶级分层
Stratification – The hierarchical arrangement of individuals into layers based on class, status, or power. Societies differ in how open or closed these layers are.
社会分层 – 依据阶级、地位或权力将个人分成不同层级的等级制度。不同社会在这些层级的开放性或封闭性上有所差异。
Meritocracy – A system where rewards and positions are allocated on the basis of talent and effort, not birth. Functionalists claim society is meritocratic; conflict theorists dispute this.
精英教育/唯才制度 – 按才能与努力而非出身分配奖赏与职位的制度。功能主义者声称社会是唯才的；冲突理论者则对此提出质疑。
Bourgeoisie and Proletariat – In Marxist theory, the two main classes in capitalist society. The bourgeoisie owns the means of production; the proletariat sells its labour power.
资产阶级与无产阶级 – 马克思主义理论中资本主义社会的两个主要阶级。资产阶级占有生产资料；无产阶级出卖劳动力。
Cultural Capital – Pierre Bourdieu’s concept: non-economic resources (knowledge, tastes, language) that grant advantage in education and social mobility. Middle-class families transmit cultural capital to their children.
文化资本 – 布迪厄的概念：非经济性资源（知识、品味、语言），在教育和社会流动中带来优势。中产阶级家庭向子女传递文化资本。
Welfare Regime – Esping-Andersen’s classification: social-democratic (Nordic), conservative-corporatist (Germany), and liberal (UK, USA). Indicates how different states shape inequality through welfare policies.
福利体制 – 埃斯平-安德森的分类：社会民主主义（北欧）、保守-法团主义（德国）和自由主义（英国、美国）。表明不同国家如何通过福利政策影响不平等。
7. Gender and Ethnicity Inequalities | 性别与种族不平等
Patriarchy – A male-dominated system where men hold primary power in political, economic, and domestic spheres. Feminists see patriarchy as the key mechanism producing gender inequality.
父权制 – 男性主导的制度，男性在政治、经济和家庭领域掌握主要权力。女性主义者视父权制为产生性别不平等的关键机制。
Glass Ceiling – An invisible barrier that prevents women from reaching top positions in organisations, despite apparent equal opportunities.
玻璃天花板 – 一种无形的障碍，阻止女性在组织中晋升到最高职位，尽管表面上机会平等。
Ethnicity vs. Race – Race refers to physical differences that society considers significant; ethnicity is a shared culture, identity and heritage. Sociologists emphasise that both are socially constructed categories.
种族与民族 – 种族指社会认为重要的身体差异；民族则强调共享的文化、身份和传统。社会学家强调两者都是社会建构的类别。
Institutional Racism – The ways racism is embedded in the normal practices and policies of organisations, even without individual prejudice. The Macpherson Report (1999) applied this to the Metropolitan Police.
制度性种族主义 – 组织日常运作与政策中嵌入的种族主义方式，即便没有个人的偏见。1999年麦克弗森报告将此概念用于伦敦警察厅。
Intersectionality – Kimberlé Crenshaw’s term; the overlapping of multiple social identities (e.g., gender, ethnicity, class) creating unique experiences of discrimination. A Black working-class woman faces combined disadvantages.
交叉性 – 克伦肖的术语；多重社会身份（如性别、种族、阶级）的重叠，创造独特的歧视体验。一位黑人工人阶级女性面临叠加的劣势。
8. Explanations of Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨的解释
Deviance – Behaviour that violates social norms, not necessarily illegal. What counts as deviant varies across cultures and over time. Crime is a form of deviance that breaks the law.
越轨 – 违反社会规范的行为，不一定是非法的。何为越轨因文化和时代而异。犯罪是触犯法律的越轨形式。
Strain Theory (Merton) – Deviance arises when the cultural goal of material success is desired by all but the legitimate means are blocked for some. Individuals may adapt in five ways: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion.
紧张理论（默顿） – 当物质成功的文化目标被所有人渴望，但合法手段对某些人受阻时，越轨就会产生。个体有五种适应模式：遵从、创新、仪式主义、退却主义和反叛。
Labelling Theory (Becker) – Deviance is not inherent in an act but is the result of society’s reaction and the application of a label. A master status can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and deviant career.
标签理论（贝克尔） – 越轨并非行为本身固有，而是社会反应和标签应用的结果。主角身份可导致自我实现预言和越轨生涯。
Subcultural Theory (Cohen, Cloward & Ohlin) – Working-class youths experience status frustration and form subcultures with alternative norms and values, such as Cohen’s delinquent subculture or Cloward and Ohlin’s criminal, conflict and retreatist subcultures.
亚文化理论（科恩、克洛沃德与奥林） – 工人阶级青少年经历地位挫折，形成具有替代规范和价值观的亚文化，如科恩的违法亚文化，或克洛沃德和奥林的犯罪、冲突和退却主义亚文化。
Right Realism – Crime is a rational choice made when benefits outweigh costs. Focuses on practical measures like zero-tolerance policing and broken windows theory. Ignores structural causes.
右翼现实主义 – 犯罪是在收益大于成本时做出的理性选择。注重零容忍警务和破窗效应等实践措施。忽视结构性原因。
Left Realism – Crime is a product of relative deprivation, marginalisation and subculture. Takes victims seriously and advocates democratic policing and social reform.
左翼现实主义 – 犯罪是相对剥夺、边缘化和亚文化的产物。重视受害者，倡导民主警务与社会改革。
9. Crime Patterns and Social Distribution | 犯罪模式与社会分布
Dark Figure of Crime – The gap between official crime statistics and the real level of crime, consisting of undetected and unreported offences. Victim surveys (e.g., CSEW) attempt to estimate it.
犯罪黑数 – 官方犯罪统计与真实犯罪水平之间的差距，包括未被发现和未报告的罪行。受害者调查（如CSEW）试图加以估量。
Age-Crime Curve – The pattern that offending peaks in adolescence and early adulthood and then declines. Explanatory factors include maturity, employment, and desistance from peer influence.
年龄-犯罪曲线 – 犯罪行为在青少年和成年早期达到高峰然后下降的模式。解释因素包括成熟、就业及脱离同辈影响。
Ethnicity and Criminalisation – Data shows over-representation of some minority ethnic groups in arrest and prison statistics. This may reflect biased policing, institutional racism, and differential offending.
种族与刑事化 – 数据显示一些少数族裔群体在逮捕和监禁统计中比例过高。这可能反映执法偏见、制度性种族主义以及不同的犯罪率。
Gender and Crime – Women commit far fewer recorded crimes than men. Explanations range from socialisation (Heidensohn’s control theory) to patriarchal chivalry thesis and the liberation thesis (Adler).
性别与犯罪 – 女性犯下的罪案远少于男性。解释包括社会化（海登松的控制理论）、父权制骑士精神论与解放论（阿德勒）。
Globalisation of Crime – The increasing interconnectedness of the world has created new forms of cross-border crime, such as cybercrime, drug trafficking and human trafficking. Held et al. and Castells provide theoretical frameworks.
犯罪的全球化 – 世界日益紧密的互联性创造了新的跨境犯罪形式，如网络犯罪、贩毒和人口贩运。赫尔德和卡斯特等提供理论框架。
10. Social Control, Punishment and Victims | 社会控制、惩罚与受害者
Formal and Informal Social Control – Formal control is exercised by official agencies (police, courts, prisons); informal control operates through family, peer groups and community. Both work together to regulate behaviour.
正式与非正式社会控制 – 正式控制由官方机构（警察、法庭、监狱）实施；非正式控制通过家庭、同伴群体和社区运作。两者共同调节行为。
Techniques of Neutralisation (Sykes and Matza) – Delinquents justify their behaviour by denying responsibility, denying injury, condemning the condemners, or appealing to higher loyalties. These techniques shore up a deviant self-image.
中和技术（赛克斯与马茨阿） – 犯罪者通过否认责任、否认伤害、谴责谴责者或诉诸更高忠诚来合理化自身行为。这些技术支撑了越轨的自我形象。
Punishment and Deterrence – Durkheim saw punishment as a way to reinforce collective conscience; Marxist perspectives view it as maintaining class control. Deterrence can be specific (individual) or general (society-wide).
惩罚与威慑 – 涂尔干将惩罚视为强化集体意识的方式；马克思主义观点则认为惩罚是维持阶级统治的手段。威慑分为个别威慑和一般威慑。
Restorative Justice – An approach that focuses on repairing the harm caused by crime through dialogue between offenders and victims, rather than simple punishment. It seeks reintegration and healing.
修复式正义 – 一种注重通过罪犯与受害者之间的对话来修复犯罪造成的伤害，而非简单惩罚的方法。它追求重新整合与愈合。
Victimology – The study of victims, including patterns of victimisation (e.g., repeat victimisation, victim precipitation) and the social construction of the ‘ideal victim’. Positivist and critical victimology offer different angles.
受害者学 – 对受害者的研究，包括受害模式（如重复受害、受害者促发）和“理想受害者”的社会建构。实证主义与批判受害者学提供不同视角。
Surveillance Society – A concept associated with Foucault’s panopticon and increased monitoring of citizens via CCTV, digital tracking, and data collection. Surveillance can be both a form of social control and a privacy concern.
监控社会 – 与福柯的全景敞视建筑以及通过闭路电视、数字追踪和数据收集强化对公民监控相关的概念。监控既是一种社会控制形式，也是一个隐私关切问题。
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