📚 Engineering Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | 工程词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the precise language of engineering is essential for succeeding in Cambridge Year 13 Engineering. This guide presents a structured approach to memorising key terms by grouping them into thematic clusters, using clear definitions and contextual links. Each section below pairs English definitions with equivalent Chinese explanations, helping you build a durable mental framework for exams and practical work.
掌握工程学的精确语言是剑桥13年级工程学考试成功的关键。本指南通过将核心术语按主题分组，提供清晰的定义与上下文联系，帮助你构建稳固的记忆框架。以下每一节都将英文定义与中文解释配对，帮助你在考试与实践中建立持久的理解。
1. Mechanical Properties of Materials | 材料力学性能
Stress is the internal force per unit area within a material, measured in pascals (Pa). It quantifies how much load a material experiences and can be tensile, compressive, or shear.
应力是材料内部单位面积上的内力，单位为帕斯卡（Pa）。它量化了材料承受的载荷，可以是拉应力、压应力或剪应力。
Strain is the dimensionless ratio of change in length to original length. It describes deformation and is often expressed as a percentage.
应变是长度变化量与原长之比，无量纲。它描述变形程度，常用百分比表示。
Young’s modulus (E) is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain in the elastic region, indicating stiffness: E = stress / strain.
杨氏模量（E）是弹性范围内拉应力与拉应变的比值，表示刚度：E = 应力 / 应变。
Yield strength is the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Beyond this point, permanent deformation occurs.
屈服强度是材料开始发生塑性变形时的应力。超过此点，变形不可恢复。
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum stress a material can withstand while being stretched before necking occurs.
极限抗拉强度是材料在拉伸时出现颈缩前所能承受的最大应力。
Ductility refers to the ability of a material to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture; it is often measured by elongation percentage.
韧性/延展性是指材料在断裂前能承受显著塑性变形的能力，通常用延伸率衡量。
Brittleness describes materials that fracture with little plastic deformation, such as glass or cast iron.
脆性描述材料在几乎无塑性变形的情况下断裂的特性，例如玻璃或铸铁。
Hardness is the resistance to indentation or scratching. It correlates with wear resistance and is measured by tests like Brinell or Vickers.
硬度是材料抵抗压痕或划痕的能力，与耐磨性相关，通过布氏或维氏硬度测试测量。
Toughness is the ability to absorb energy up to fracture, represented by the area under the stress-strain curve.
韧性是材料在断裂前吸收能量的能力，由应力–应变曲线下面积表示。
2. Forces and Moments in Structures | 结构中的力与力矩
A tensile force pulls materials apart, causing elongation and positive strain.
拉力将材料拉开，导致伸长和正应变。
A compressive force pushes materials together, causing shortening and negative strain.
压力将材料压在一起，导致缩短和负应变。
Shear force acts parallel to the cross-section of a structural element, causing layers to slide relative to each other.
剪力平行于结构横截面作用，引起层间相对滑动。
Bending moment is the internal moment that causes a beam to bend; it is calculated as the sum of moments about a section.
弯矩是使梁弯曲的内部力矩；通过对某截面取力矩和计算得出。
Torque (or torsional moment) is a moment that causes twisting about the longitudinal axis. Power transmitted by a rotating shaft is P = τ × ω.
扭矩是引起绕纵轴扭转的力矩。转轴传递的功率为 P = τ × ω。
A free-body diagram is a simplified sketch showing all external forces and moments acting on a body, essential for equilibrium analysis.
受力分析图是显示作用于刚体上所有外力和力矩的简化图形，是平衡分析的基础。
Equilibrium conditions require that the vector sum of forces is zero and the sum of moments about any point is zero: ΣF = 0, ΣM = 0.
平衡条件要求力的矢量和为零，且对任意点的力矩总和为零：ΣF = 0，ΣM = 0。
Factor of safety (FoS) is the ratio of ultimate stress to allowable working stress, providing a margin against failure.
安全系数是极限应力与许用工作应力的比值，为防止失效提供余量。
Buckling is a sudden lateral deflection of a slender member under compression, governed by Euler’s formula.
屈曲是细长构件在受压下发生的突然横向挠曲，由欧拉公式控制。
3. Dynamics and Kinematics | 动力学与运动学
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with direction, while speed is scalar. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
速度是位移随时间的变化率，具有方向性；速率是标量。加速度是速度的变化率。
Newton’s second law: F = ma, where net force equals mass times acceleration.
牛顿第二定律：F = ma，合力等于质量乘以加速度。
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity (p = mv). Impulse equals change in momentum: FΔt = Δp.
动量是质量与速度的乘积（p = mv）。冲量等于动量的变化：FΔt = Δp。
Work done is the product of force and displacement in the direction of the force: W = Fs cosθ.
功是力与在力方向上位移的乘积：W = Fs cosθ。
Kinetic energy (KE) = ½ mv²; gravitational potential energy (GPE) = mgh. Conservation of mechanical energy states that total energy remains constant in the absence of non-conservative forces.
动能 = ½ mv²；重力势能 = mgh。机械能守恒定律指出，在没有非保守力时总能量保持不变。
Power is the rate of doing work: P = W / t = Fv. For a rotating shaft, P = τω.
功率是做功的速率：P = W / t = Fv。对于转轴，P = τω。
Efficiency is the ratio of useful output power to input power, often expressed as a percentage: η = (Pout / Pin) × 100%.
效率是有用输出功率与输入功率之比，常用百分比表示：η = (Pout / Pin) × 100%。
Angular velocity (ω) is the rate of change of angular displacement, measured in rad/s. Linear velocity v = ωr for a point at radius r.
角速度（ω）是角位移的变化率，单位为rad/s。半径r处点的线速度 v = ωr。
Centripetal force is required to keep an object moving in a circle: F = mv²/r = mω²r, directed towards the centre.
向心力是维持物体做圆周运动所需的力：F = mv²/r = mω²r，指向圆心。
4. Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer | 热力学与热传递
Temperature (T) is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. The Kelvin scale is used in thermodynamic equations: T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.
温度是粒子平均动能的量度。热力学方程中使用开尔文温标：T(K) = θ(°C) + 273。
Heat (Q) is energy transferred due to temperature difference. It can be transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation.
热量是因温差而传递的能量。传热方式有传导、对流和辐射。
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved: ΔU = Q – W, where ΔU is change in internal energy, Q is heat added, and W is work done by the system.
热力学第一定律指出能量守恒：ΔU = Q – W，其中ΔU是内能变化，Q是加入的热量，W是系统对外做功。
Specific heat capacity (c) is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K: Q = mcΔθ.
比热容是使1 kg物质温度升高1 K所需的能量：Q = mcΔθ。
Latent heat (L) is the energy absorbed or released during a phase change at constant temperature: Q = mL.
潜热是恒温相变过程中吸收或释放的能量：Q = mL。
The second law of thermodynamics introduces entropy (S), a measure of disorder. For a reversible process, ΔS = ΔQ / T. Natural processes increase total entropy.
热力学第二定律引入熵（S），它是无序度的量度。对于可逆过程，ΔS = ΔQ / T。自然过程熵增。
A Carnot cycle is the most efficient reversible heat engine cycle operating between two temperatures; its efficiency is ηCarnot = 1 – (Tcold / Thot), with temperatures in Kelvin.
卡诺循环是工作在两个温度之间的最有效可逆热机循环；效率为 ηCarnot = 1 – (Tcold / Thot)，温度用开尔文。
Conduction is described by Fourier’s law: heat flow rate is proportional to the temperature gradient and cross-sectional area.
热传导由傅里叶定律描述：热流率与温度梯度和横截面积成正比。
Convection involves heat transfer by bulk fluid motion. Newton’s law of cooling gives Q = hAΔT, where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient.
对流通过流体整体运动传热。牛顿冷却定律给出 Q = hAΔT，其中h是对流传热系数。
5. Fluid Mechanics | 流体力学
Density (ρ) is mass per unit volume (kg/m³). Specific weight is weight per unit volume. Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a substance to that of water.
密度是单位体积的质量（kg/m³）。重度是单位体积的重量。比重是物质密度与水密度之比。
Pressure (p) is force per unit area (Pa). In a static fluid, pressure increases with depth: p = ρgh.
压强是单位面积上的力（Pa）。在静止流体中，压强随深度增加：p = ρgh。
Buoyancy force follows Archimedes’ principle: the upthrust equals the weight of fluid displaced. An object floats if its average density is less than the fluid’s density.
浮力遵循阿基米德原理：浮力等于排开流体的重量。若物体平均密度小于流体密度，则浮起。
Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless parameter predicting flow regime: Re = ρvL / μ, where L is characteristic length and μ is dynamic viscosity. Low Re indicates laminar flow; high Re indicates turbulent flow.
雷诺数是一个无量纲参数，用于判断流态：Re = ρvL / μ，L为特征长度，μ为动力粘度。低Re为层流，高Re为湍流。
Conservation of mass for a steady flow is given by the continuity equation: A₁v₁ = A₂v₂, where A is cross-sectional area and v is velocity.
稳态流动的质量守恒由连续性方程给出：A₁v₁ = A₂v₂，A为横截面积，v为速度。
Bernoulli’s equation for an inviscid, incompressible steady flow is: p + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant. It expresses energy conservation per unit volume along a streamline.
伯努利方程适用于无粘不可压缩稳态流动：p + ½ρv² + ρgh = 常数。它表达了沿流线单位体积的能量守恒。
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to shear. Dynamic viscosity (μ) relates shear stress to velocity gradient: τ = μ (du/dy). Kinematic viscosity ν = μ / ρ.
粘度是流体抵抗剪切变形的量度。动力粘度μ将切应力与速度梯度联系起来：τ = μ (du/dy)。运动粘度 ν = μ / ρ。
Drag force opposes relative motion in a fluid. For a sphere at low Re, Stokes’ law gives Fd = 6πμrv. At high Re, drag coefficient Cd is used: Fd = ½CdρAv².
阻力阻碍流体中的相对运动。对于球体在低Re下，斯托克斯定律给出 Fd = 6πμrv。高Re时使用阻力系数Cd：Fd = ½CdρAv²。
6. Electrical Principles | 电学基础
Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge (A). Voltage (V) is electric potential difference (V). Resistance (R) opposes current (Ω). Ohm’s law: V = IR.
电流是电荷流动的速率（A）。电压是电势差（V）。电阻阻碍电流（Ω）。欧姆定律：V = IR。
Power in a DC circuit: P = IV = I²R = V²/R. Energy consumed is E = Pt.
直流电路中的功率：P = IV = I²R = V²/R。消耗的能量 E = Pt。
Resistors in series: Rtotal = R₁ + R₂ + … ; in parallel: 1/Rtotal = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …
串联电阻：Rtotal = R₁ + R₂ + …；并联电阻：1/Rtotal = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum leaving it. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The sum of voltages around any closed loop is zero.
基尔霍夫电流定律：流入节点的电流之和等于流出之和。基尔霍夫电压定律：沿任一闭合回路的电压代数和为零。
A capacitor stores charge; capacitance C = Q/V (farads). Energy stored: E = ½CV². Time constant for an RC circuit: τ = RC.
电容器储存电荷；电容 C = Q/V（法拉）。储存能量：E = ½CV²。RC电路时间常数：τ = RC。
An inductor stores energy in a magnetic field; inductance L is measured in henrys (H). Induced voltage V = L (dI/dt).
电感器在磁场中储存能量；电感 L 以亨利（H）为单位。感应电压 V = L (dI/dt)。
Alternating current (AC) varies sinusoidally. Root mean square (RMS) values: Vrms = Vpeak / √2, Irms = Ipeak / √2.
交流电呈正弦变化。均方根值：Vrms = Vpeak / √2，Irms = Ipeak / √2。
Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to AC, combining resistance and reactance. For a series RLC circuit, Z = √(R² + (XL – XC)²).
阻抗是交流电路的总阻力，结合了电阻和电抗。对于串联RLC电路，Z = √(R² + (XL – XC)²)。
7. Electronics and Control Systems | 电子学与控制系统
A semiconductor diode allows current to flow in one direction only (forward bias). It has a threshold voltage of about 0.7V for silicon.
半导体二极管只允许电流单向流动（正向偏置）。硅二极管的阈值电压约为0.7V。
A Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse breakdown, providing a stable reference voltage.
齐纳二极管设计在反向击穿状态下工作，提供稳定的基准电压。
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled device with three terminals: base, collector, emitter. It can act as a switch or amplifier.
双极结型晶体管是一种电流控制器件，有三个引脚：基极、集电极、发射极。可用作开关或放大器。
An operational amplifier (op-amp) has very high gain. In a negative feedback configuration, the closed-loop gain is determined by external resistors. The ideal op-amp has infinite input impedance and zero output impedance.
运算放大器增益极高。在负反馈组态下，闭环增益由外部电阻决定。理想运放输入阻抗无穷大，输出阻抗为零。
An inverting amplifier has gain Av = -Rf / Rin. A non-inverting amplifier has gain Av = 1 + Rf / Rin.
反相放大器增益为 Av = -Rf / Rin。同相放大器增益为 Av = 1 + Rf / Rin。
A rectifier converts AC to DC. A full-wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes to utilise both half-cycles.
整流器将交流转换为直流。全波桥式整流器用四个二极管利用两个半周。
A control system manages the behaviour of other devices using feedback. Negative feedback subtracts the output from the input to stabilise the system.
控制系统利用反馈管理其他设备的行为。负反馈从输入中减去输出以稳定系统。
Transfer function G(s) = output / input in the Laplace domain. It characterises the dynamic behaviour of a linear time-invariant system.
传递函数 G(s) = 输出 / 输入（拉普拉斯域）。它表征线性时不变系统的动态特性。
8. Engineering Materials and Processing | 工程材料与加工
Ferrous metals contain iron; non-ferrous metals do not. Alloys are mixtures of metals designed to enhance properties.
黑色金属含铁；有色金属不含。合金是为改善性能而设计的金属混合物。
Polymers are long-chain molecules; thermoplastics soften on heating and can be remoulded, while thermosets undergo irreversible curing.
聚合物是长链分子；热塑性塑料加热变软可重塑，热固性塑料固化后不可逆。
Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic solids with high hardness and melting points but low toughness.
陶瓷是无机非金属固体，硬度高、熔点高但韧性低。
Composites combine two or more materials to achieve a balance of properties, e.g., carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP).
复合材料结合两种或多种材料以实现性能平衡，如碳纤维增强聚合物（CFRP）。
Work hardening (or strain hardening) increases strength through plastic deformation; annealing reverses this by heating to allow recrystallization.
加工硬化通过塑性变形提高强度；退火通过加热再结晶来恢复。
Fatigue is the weakening of material under cyclic loading, leading to crack initiation and propagation. The endurance limit is the stress below which fatigue failure does not occur.
疲劳是材料在循环载荷下的弱化，导致裂纹萌生和扩展。疲劳极限是低于此应力疲劳失效不会发生的值。
Corrosion is the degradation of metals by chemical or electrochemical reaction with the environment. Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact in an electrolyte.
腐蚀是金属与环境发生化学或电化学反应的降解。电偶腐蚀发生在两种不同金属在电解质中接触时。
Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques like ultrasonic, X-ray, and dye penetrant detect flaws without damaging the material.
无损检测技术如超声波、X射线和渗透剂可在不损坏材料的情况下检测缺陷。
9. Manufacturing Processes | 制造工艺
Casting involves pouring molten metal into a mould. Sand casting uses expendable moulds, while die casting uses permanent metal moulds for high volumes.
铸造是将熔融金属倒入模具。砂型铸造使用一次性模具，压铸使用永久金属模具，适合大批量生产。
Forming processes shape materials plastically: forging (hammering), rolling, extrusion (pushing through a die), and drawing (pulling).
成形工艺通过塑性变形塑形：锻造、轧制、挤压和拉拔。
Machining removes material with cutting tools. Turning uses a lathe; milling uses a rotating cutter; drilling creates holes.
机加工用刀具去除材料。车削用车床，铣削用旋转刀具，钻孔加工孔。
Welding joins materials by fusion with or without a filler material. Brazing and soldering use a lower-melting-point filler without melting the base metals.
焊接通过熔化（可加填充材料）连接材料。钎焊和软钎焊使用低熔点填充材料而不熔化基材。
Additive manufacturing (3D printing) builds parts layer by layer from a digital model, enabling complex geometries.
增材制造（3D打印）根据数字模型逐层构建零件，可实现复杂几何形状。
Injection moulding is used for high-volume production of plastic parts by injecting molten polymer into a mould.
注塑成型用于塑料零件的大批量生产，将熔融聚合物注入模具。
10. Instrumentation and Measurements | 仪器与测量
A sensor detects a physical quantity and produces a proportional output. A transducer converts one form of energy to another.
传感器检测物理量并产生比例输出。换能器将一种能量形式转换为另一种。
A strain gauge measures strain by changing electrical resistance when deformed. Often arranged in a Wheatstone bridge for sensitivity.
应变计通过变形时改变电阻来测量应变。常布置成惠斯通电桥以提高灵敏度。
A thermocouple generates a voltage due to the Seebeck effect at the junction of two dissimilar metals, used for temperature measurement.
热电偶基于两种不同金属接点的塞贝克效应产生电压，用于温度测量。
Resolution is the smallest change in input that a measurement system can detect. Accuracy is the closeness to the true value. Precision refers to the repeatability of measurements.
分辨率是测量系统能检测到的最小输入变化。准确度是与真值的接近程度。精密度指测量结果的可重复性。
Signal conditioning includes amplification, filtering, and analogue-to-digital conversion to prepare sensor signals for processing.
信号调理包括放大、滤波和模数转换，以便处理传感器信号。
A data logger records measurements over time, often connected to a computer for analysis.
数据记录器随时间记录测量值，通常连接至计算机进行分析。
11. Engineering Mathematics Quick References | 工程数学速查
Trigonometric functions are essential for resolving forces and analysing waves. Key identities: sin²θ + cos²θ = 1.
三角函数对分解力和分析波动至关重要。关键恒等式：sin²θ + cos²θ = 1。
Logarithms and exponentials appear in decay processes and control theory: ln(eˣ) = x.
对数与指数出现在衰变过程和控制理论中：ln(eˣ) = x。
Complex numbers are used to represent impedance and phasors: Z = R + jX, where j² = -1.
复数用于表示阻抗和相量：Z = R + jX，其中 j² = -1。
Differentiation gives the rate of change: velocity is the derivative of displacement; acceleration is the derivative of velocity.
微分给出变化率：速度是位移的导数；加速度是速度的导数。
Integration gives the area under a curve, used to find work done from a force-displacement graph or charge from current.
积分给出曲线下面积，用于从力-位移图求功或从电流求电荷。
Vectors have magnitude and direction. Dot product gives a scalar: A · B = |A||B|cosθ. Cross product gives a vector: A × B = |A||B|sinθ n.
矢量有大小和方向。点积给出标量：A · B = |A||B|cosθ。叉积给出矢量：A × B = |A||B|sinθ n。
12. System Thinking and Design | 系统思维与设计
A system is a set of interacting components with defined inputs and outputs. A black box model focuses only on the input–output relationship.
系统是由相互关联的组件组成的集合，具有定义的输入和输出。黑箱模型只关注输入–输出关系。
Open-loop control has no feedback, e.g., a simple timer-based toaster. Closed-loop control uses feedback to adjust the input continuously.
开环控制无反馈，如简单定时烤面包机。闭环控制利用反馈连续调节输入。
Transfer function representation: G(s) = K / (τs + 1) for a first-order system, showing how gain K and time constant τ affect response.
传递函数表示：一阶系统 G(s) = K / (τs + 1)，显示增益 K 和时间常数 τ 如何影响响应。
Stability is the ability of a system to return to equilibrium after a disturbance. Pole locations in the s-plane determine stability.
稳定性是系统受扰动后回到平衡的能力。s平面极点位置决定稳定性。
Ergonomics (or human factors) ensures that products and systems fit the user’s capabilities and limitations, improving safety and efficiency.
人因工程确保产品与系统符合用户的能力与局限，提高安全性和效率。
Sustainability in engineering design considers life-cycle environmental impact, including material selection, energy use, and end-of-life disposal.
工程设计中的可持续性考虑生命周期的环境影响，包括材料选择、能源使用和废弃处理。
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