📚 IGCSE AQA Sociology: Key Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Recall Guide | IGCSE AQA 社会学：核心词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the language of sociology is the first step to writing confident, examiner-pleasing answers. This bilingual guide breaks down the most essential IGCSE AQA Sociology terms into clear, memorisable bites, pairing English definitions with their Chinese equivalents so you can learn, recall, and apply them with ease. Use it as a daily drill, a last-minute revision buddy, or a glossary-building tool.
掌握社会学语言是写出自信且令考官满意答卷的第一步。这份双语指南将IGCSE AQA社会学中最核心的术语拆解为清晰、易记的小单元，将英文定义与中文对应，让你轻松学习、回忆和运用。你可以把它当作每日练习、考前突击伙伴或术语积累工具。
1. Core Sociological Concepts | 核心社会学概念
Society: A structured community of people who share a common territory, culture, and institutions. Sociologists study how societies are organised and how they change.
社会：共享同一地域、文化和制度的结构化人群。社会学家研究社会的组织方式及其变迁。
Culture: The whole way of life of a particular group. It includes language, beliefs, values, norms, customs, and material objects such as clothing and food.
文化：某一群体的整体生活方式。包含语言、信仰、价值观、规范、习俗以及服装、食物等物质实体。
Norms: Social rules that define acceptable and expected behaviour in specific situations. Norms are often unwritten but enforced through social pressure.
规范：界定特定情境中可接受且被期待行为的社会规则。规范通常不成文，但通过社会压力执行。
Values: Broad, general beliefs about what is desirable, good, and important in a society. Values underpin norms and guide behaviour.
价值观：关于社会中何为可取、良善和重要的概括性信念。价值观支撑规范并指引行为。
Roles: The expected patterns of behaviour associated with a particular social position. Role conflict can occur when a person occupies multiple roles at once.
角色：与特定社会位置相关联的行为模式。当一个人同时承担多个角色时可能出现角色冲突。
Status: The social standing or prestige attached to a position. Status may be ascribed (given at birth) or achieved (earned through effort).
地位：附着于某一位置的社会声望。地位可以是先赋的（与生俱来）或自致的（通过努力获得）。
2. Socialisation and Its Agencies | 社会化及其机构
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and behaviours appropriate to their society. It is how culture is passed on.
社会化：个体终身学习其社会规范、价值观和行为方式的过程。文化借此得以传递。
Primary socialisation: The early phase of learning in the family, where children acquire basic language, norms, and values. It forms the core of a person’s social identity.
初级社会化：家庭中早期学习阶段，儿童习得基本语言、规范和价值观。它构成个体社会认同的核心。
Secondary socialisation: The later process where schools, peer groups, media, and workplaces teach more specific norms and roles. It continues throughout life.
次级社会化：稍后的过程，由学校、同伴群体、媒体和工作场所传授更具体的规范和角色。贯穿一生。
Agencies of socialisation: The groups and institutions that carry out socialisation. The main agencies are family, education, peer group, mass media, and religion.
社会化机构：实施社会化的群体和制度。主要机构包括家庭、教育、同伴群体、大众媒体和宗教。
Peer group: A group of people of similar age and status. The peer group becomes highly influential in adolescence, often shaping tastes, slang, and behaviour.
同伴群体：年龄和地位相似的人群。在青春期影响极大，常塑造品味、俚语和行为。
Hidden curriculum: The unspoken, informal norms and values transmitted through the school environment, such as punctuality, obedience, and competition. It runs alongside the official curriculum.
隐性课程：通过学校环境传递的未明说、非正式的规范和价值观，如守时、服从和竞争。它与正式课程并存。
3. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Social stratification: The way society is organised into hierarchical layers or strata based on factors like class, status, and power. It is a structured inequality.
社会分层：社会依据阶级、地位和权力等因素被组织为层级的方式。是一种结构化的不平等。
Social class: A large grouping of people sharing similar economic positions, lifestyles, and life chances. Sociologists often refer to upper, middle, and working classes.
社会阶级：一群经济地位、生活方式和人生机会相似的人。社会学家常提及上、中、工人阶级。
Life chances: The opportunities an individual has to achieve goals such as good health, educational success, and a well-paid job. Life chances are heavily influenced by social class.
人生机会：个体在健康、学业成就和高薪工作等方面拥有的机会。受社会阶级影响极大。
Social mobility: The movement of individuals or groups up or down the stratification system. Mobility can be intergenerational (between generations) or intragenerational (within a person’s own career).
社会流动：个体或群体在分层体系中向上或向下的移动。可以是代际流动或代内流动。
Ascribed status: A social position fixed at birth, such as race, sex, or inherited title. Ascribed status is largely unchangeable.
先赋地位：出生时确定的社会位置，如种族、性别或继承的头衔。很大程度上不可改变。
Achieved status: A social position gained through personal effort, talent, or choice, such as becoming a doctor or an athlete. It reflects individual agency.
自致地位：通过个人努力、才能或选择获得的社会地位，如成为医生或运动员。反映个人能动性。
Poverty: A condition of severe lack of resources. Absolute poverty means lacking basic necessities for survival; relative poverty means falling below the average standard of living in a society.
贫困：资源严重匮乏的状态。绝对贫困指缺乏基本生存必需品；相对贫困指低于社会平均生活水准。
4. Sociology of the Family | 家庭社会学
Family: A social institution that bonds people through kinship, marriage, or blood. Families differ in structure across cultures and historical periods.
家庭：通过亲属关系、婚姻或血缘将人们联结在一起的社会制度。家庭结构因文化和历史时期而异。
Nuclear family: A two-generation family unit consisting of adult partners and their dependent children. It is often presented as the traditional ideal in Western societies.
核心家庭：由成年伴侣及其受抚养子女组成的二代家庭单元。在西方社会常被呈现为传统理想型。
Extended family: A family grouping that includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles, living together or in close contact.
扩展家庭：包含核心家庭成员之外的亲戚，如祖父母、叔伯姑姨同住或密切往来的家庭结构。
Lone-parent family: A household where a single parent lives with their dependent children. This family form has grown due to divorce, separation, and changing social norms.
单亲家庭：单亲与受抚养子女共同生活的家庭。由于离婚、分居和社会规范变化而增多。
Patriarchy: A system where men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property. Feminist sociologists highlight patriarchy within families.
父权制：男性掌握主要权力并在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制中占主导地位的体系。女性主义社会学家强调家庭内部的父权制。
Domestic division of labour: The way household tasks are divided between family members. Sociologists investigate whether this division is still unequal along gender lines.
家务分工：家务任务在家庭成员间的分配方式。社会学家探讨这种分工是否仍存在性别不平等。
Conjugal roles: The roles of the adult partners within a family. Joint conjugal roles mean couples share tasks and leisure, while segregated roles mean a clear split of duties.
夫妻角色：家庭中成年伴侣的角色。联合夫妻角色指夫妇分担任务和休闲，隔离角色则指责任明确分割。
5. Sociology of Education | 教育社会学
Formal education: Learning that takes place in an organised, structured setting such as schools, following a set curriculum and leading to recognised qualifications.
正式教育：在学校等有组织的结构化环境中进行的遵循课程并导向资格认证的学习。
Informal education: Lifelong, unstructured learning through everyday experiences, peer interaction, family discussion, and media consumption. It shapes attitudes and values.
非正式教育：通过日常经验、同伴互动、家庭讨论和媒体消费进行的终身非结构化学习。塑造态度和价值观。
Comprehensive school: A state school that admits all pupils regardless of ability. It aims to reduce class-based inequalities in education by offering a single system for everyone.
综合学校：招收所有学生而不论能力的公立学校。旨在通过单一体系减少教育中的阶级不平等。
Selective education: A system where pupils are allocated to different schools based on academic ability, typically through an entrance exam like the 11-plus. Grammar schools are an example.
选拔性教育：根据学业能力将学生分配至不同学校的体系，通常通过升学考试。文法学校为一例。
Marketisation of education: Policies that introduce competition and consumer choice into education, treating schools like businesses. Examples include league tables and school funding following pupils.
教育市场化：将竞争和消费者选择引入教育的政策，使学校像企业一样运作。如学校排行榜和按学生人数拨款。
Cultural capital: The knowledge, language, attitudes, and values possessed by the middle class that give children an advantage in the education system. The term is associated with Bourdieu.
文化资本：中产阶级拥有的知识、语言、态度和价值观，使子女在教育体系中占优。此术语与布迪厄相关联。
Self-fulfilling prophecy: A process where a prediction leads to behaviour that makes the prediction come true. For example, if teachers label a pupil as low-ability, the pupil may underperform.
自证预言：一种预测导致行为进而使该预言成真的过程。例如教师给某学生贴上低能力标签，该学生便可能表现不佳。
6. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Crime: An act that breaks the formal written laws of a society and is punishable by the legal system. Not all deviant acts are criminal.
犯罪：违反社会正式成文法律并应受法律体系惩罚的行为。并非所有越轨行为都构成犯罪。
Deviance: Behaviour that goes against the dominant norms and values of a society. Deviance can be criminal or non-criminal, and it varies across cultures and time.
越轨：违背社会主流规范与价值观的行为。越轨可能犯罪也可能不犯罪，并因文化、时间而异。
Anomie: A state of normlessness where social norms break down, often during periods of rapid social change. Merton linked anomie to strain and crime.
失范：社会规范崩溃的无序状态，常发生于快速社会变革期。默顿将失范与压力及犯罪联系起来。
Labelling: The process of attaching a deviant identity to an individual. According to labelling theory, social reactions to an act can make deviance become a master status, leading to further deviance.
标签化：将越轨身份附着于个体的过程。根据标签理论，社会对某一行为的反应可能使越轨成为主要身份，导致进一步越轨。
White-collar crime: Non-violent crime committed by middle-class or professional individuals in the course of their occupation, often involving fraud, embezzlement, or corruption. It tends to be less visible than street crime.
白领犯罪：中产阶级或专业人士在职业中实施的非暴力犯罪，常涉及欺诈、贪污或腐败。一般比街头犯罪隐蔽。
Moral panic: A widespread feeling of fear that some group or behaviour is a threat to social order. The media often amplify moral panics, leading to calls for tougher social control.
道德恐慌：对某一群体或行为威胁社会秩序的广泛恐惧感。媒体常放大道德恐慌，引发加强社会控制的呼声。
Social control: The mechanisms, strategies, and institutions used to regulate individual and group behaviour. Formal social control uses laws and sanctions; informal control uses shame and gossip.
社会控制：用以规制个体与群体行为的机制、策略和制度。正式社会控制使用法律和制裁；非正式控制使用羞辱和流言。
7. Mass Media and Society | 大众媒体与社会
Mass media: The diverse range of communication channels that reach large audiences, including television, newspapers, radio, and digital platforms. Media shape public opinion and culture.
大众媒体：触及大量受众的各种传播渠道，包括电视、报纸、广播和数字平台。媒体塑造舆论和文化。
Agenda-setting: The media’s ability to influence which issues are perceived as important by the public. By giving certain topics extensive coverage, the media set the agenda for what people discuss.
议程设置：媒体影响公众对哪些议题重要之认知的能力。媒体通过大量报道某些话题，确定人们讨论的议程。
Representation: The way the media portray particular groups, events, or ideas. Representations are constructed and can reinforce or challenge stereotypes.
再现：媒体描绘特定群体、事件或观念的方式。再现是建构的，可以强化或挑战刻板印象。
Stereotype: A simplified, often exaggerated generalisation about a social group. Media stereotypes can lead to prejudice and discrimination.
刻板印象：对某一社会群体的简化、经常夸张的一般化概括。媒体刻板印象可能导致偏见和歧视。
Gatekeeping: The process by which media professionals decide which stories are published or broadcast. Gatekeepers filter information and shape the news agenda.
把关：媒体专业人员决定哪些报道得以发布或播放的过程。把关人过滤信息并塑造新闻议程。
Citizen journalism: News reporting by ordinary members of the public, often using smartphones and social media. It has challenged the traditional gatekeeping role of professional journalists.
公民新闻：普通公众常通过智能手机和社交媒体进行的新闻报道。它挑战了职业记者的传统把关角色。
Digital divide: The gap between those who have access to digital technology and the internet and those who do not. This divide can reinforce existing social inequalities.
数字鸿沟：能获取数字技术和互联网的人群与不能获取的人群之间的差距。可能强化现有社会不平等。
8. Power, Politics and Social Movements | 权力、政治与社会运动
Power: The ability to influence the behaviour of others, even against their will. Sociologists see power operating in relationships, institutions, and through ideologies.
权力：影响他人行为的能力，哪怕违背其意愿。社会学家认为权力运作于关系、制度和意识形态之中。
Authority: Legitimate power that people consent to follow because they believe it is rightful. Weber distinguished traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority.
权威：人们因相信其正当性而自愿服从的合法权力。韦伯区分了传统型、魅力型和法理型权威。
State: A political entity that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a given territory. The state includes government, police, army, and legal systems.
国家：在一定领土内拥有合法使用武力垄断权的政治实体。国家包括政府、警察、军队和法律系统。
Democracy: A political system where citizens have a say in decision-making, typically through voting in free and fair elections. Representative democracy is the most common form.
民主：公民通过自由公正选举参与决策的政治制度。代议制民主是最常见的形式。
Pressure group: An organised group that tries to influence government policy without seeking to win office. Examples include trade unions and environmental campaign groups.
压力集团：试图影响政府政策但不谋求执政的有组织团体。如工会和环保运动组织。
Social movement: A large, often loosely organised collective effort to bring about or resist social change. Movements often use protests, social media, and lobbying to push for change.
社会运动：大规模、组织常松散的集体努力，旨在推动或抵制社会变革。运动常借助抗议、社交媒体和游说。
9. Research Methods and Key Concepts | 研究方法与关键概念
Qualitative data: Non-numerical information that explores meanings, experiences, and feelings. Methods producing qualitative data include interviews, observations, and open-ended questionnaires.
定质数据：探究意义、经历和感受的非数值资料。产生定质数据的方法包括访谈、观察和开放式问卷。
Quantitative data: Numerical information that can be counted, measured, and statistically analysed. Surveys with closed questions often generate quantitative data.
定量数据：可计数、测量和统计分析的数字信息。含封闭式问题的调查常生成定量数据。
Primary data: Information collected first-hand by the researcher for a specific sociological investigation, such as responses from self-completed questionnaires or field observations.
原始数据：研究者为特定社会学调查而直接收集的信息，如自填问卷的回答或田野观察记录。
Secondary data: Information that already exists and was collected by someone else, for instance official statistics, historical documents, and previous research studies.
二手数据：已存在且由他人收集的信息，如官方统计、历史文献和以往的研究报告。
Sampling: The process of selecting a subset of a population to participate in research. A representative sample is crucial if researchers want to generalise findings to the wider population.
抽样：从总体中选取部分个体参与研究的过程。若研究者想将结论推广至更广泛的总体，代表性样本至关重要。
Ethics: The moral principles guiding research. Ethical considerations include informed consent, confidentiality, avoiding harm, and respecting the privacy of participants.
伦理：指导研究的道德原则。伦理考虑包括知情同意、保密、避免伤害和尊重参与者隐私。
Validity: The extent to which research findings give a true picture of what is being studied. High validity means the data genuinely reflect social reality.
效度：研究发现真实反映研究对象本质的程度。高效度意味着数据真实反映社会现实。
Reliability: The consistency of research findings. A method is reliable if it can be repeated and produce the same results under similar conditions.
信度：研究结果的一致性。若某一方法可被重复并在相似条件下得到相同结果，则该方法具有信度。
10. Key Sociological Perspectives | 主要社会学视角
Functionalism: A consensus theory that sees society as a system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability. Functionalists examine how institutions contribute to social order.
功能主义：一种共识理论，将社会视为相互关联的部分共同维护稳定的系统。功能主义者考察制度如何促进社会秩序。
Marxism: A conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx. Marxists argue that society is divided by class conflict between the bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the proletariat (working class), driven by economic exploitation.
马克思主义：基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突理论。马克思主义者认为社会因经济剥削而形成资产阶级与无产阶级的阶级冲突。
Feminism: A conflict perspective focusing on gender inequality. Feminists see society as patriarchal and seek to understand and end women’s subordination in areas such as family, work, and media.
女性主义：关注性别不平等的冲突视角。女性主义者视社会为父权制，力求理解并终结女性在家庭、工作和媒体等领域的从属地位。
Interactionism: A micro-level perspective that focuses on small-scale, everyday interactions and the meanings people give to situations. Labelling theory and the self-fulfilling prophecy are key interactionist ideas.
互动论：关注小规模日常互动及人们赋予情境意义的一种微观视角。标签理论和自证预言是核心互动论观点。
Consensus: A general agreement on fundamental values and norms within a society. Functionalists argue that consensus holds society together.
共识：社会内部对基本价值观和规范的普遍认同。功能主义者认为共识将社会维系在一起。
Conflict: A constant struggle between groups with opposing interests. Marxists and feminists argue that conflict, not consensus, is the driving force of social change.
冲突：利益对立的群体间持续的斗争。马克思主义者和女性主义者认为冲突而非共识是社会变迁的驱动力。
Social construction: The idea that what we perceive as reality, including knowledge, norms, and social roles, is created and shaped by society rather than being naturally given. Interactionists frequently use this concept.
社会建构：认为我们所感知的现实——包括知识、规范和社会角色——由社会创造和塑造而非自然赋予的观念。互动论者常使用此概念。
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