📚 IGCSE OCR Sociology: Quick-Reference Handbook of Key Concepts and Theories | IGCSE OCR 社会学：关键概念与理论速查手册
This quick-reference guide brings together the essential concepts, theories, and research methods you need for the IGCSE OCR Sociology examination. It is structured to help you revise efficiently by pairing each English explanation with its Chinese equivalent, ensuring clarity across both languages. Use this handbook to consolidate your understanding of social structures, key perspectives, and the processes that shape human behaviour.
本速查手册汇集了 IGCSE OCR 社会学考试所需的基本概念、理论和研究方法。通过将每条英文解释与对应的中文配对，帮助你有条理地高效复习，确保双语的清晰理解。利用本手册巩固你对社会结构、关键视角以及塑造人类行为的各种过程的掌握。
1. Key Sociological Perspectives | 主要社会学视角
Functionalism sees society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability and social order. Each institution — such as the family, education, and religion — serves a function that contributes to the survival of the whole system.
功能主义 将社会视为一个由相互关联的部分组成的系统，各部分共同运作以维持稳定和社会秩序。每个制度——如家庭、教育和宗教——都发挥着有助于整个系统存续的功能。
Marxism argues that society is shaped by conflict between social classes over the ownership of the means of production. The bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat, and this economic base determines the superstructure of institutions, beliefs, and laws.
马克思主义 认为社会是由社会阶级之间围绕生产资料所有权而产生的冲突所塑造的。资产阶级剥削无产阶级，而这种经济基础决定了制度、信仰和法律的上层建筑。
Feminism highlights gender inequality and the patriarchal nature of social structures. It examines how gender roles are socially constructed and how women’s experiences have been marginalised in both private and public spheres.
女性主义 强调性别不平等和社会结构的父权性质。它考察性别角色如何被社会建构，以及女性的经验如何在私人领域和公共领域中被边缘化。
Interactionism focuses on small-scale, face-to-face interactions and the meanings individuals attach to their actions. It contrasts with macro approaches by exploring how social reality is constantly negotiated through symbols and everyday behaviour.
互动论 关注小规模的面对面互动以及个体赋予其行为的意义。它通过与宏观方法形成对比，探讨社会现实如何通过符号和日常行为不断地被协商建构。
2. Research Methods and Design | 研究方法与设计
Primary data is collected first-hand by the sociologist for a specific purpose, using methods such as questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Its main advantage is that the researcher can tailor the data collection to exactly match the research question.
一手数据 是社会学研究者为特定目的亲自收集的数据，使用问卷调查、访谈和观察等方法。其主要优势在于研究者能够精确地根据研究问题定制数据收集方式。
Secondary data refers to information that already exists, such as official statistics, historical documents, and previous sociological studies. It saves time and money but may not perfectly fit the current research needs.
二手数据 指已经存在的信息，如官方统计、历史文献和以往的社会学研究。它节省时间和金钱，但可能无法完全适配当前的研究需求。
Validity is the extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure. Qualitative methods, like in-depth interviews, often produce high validity because they capture detailed, authentic experiences.
效度 是指研究方法在多大程度上测量了它声称要测量的东西。定性方法，如深度访谈，通常具有较高效度，因为它们能捕捉到细致、真实的经验。
Reliability concerns the consistency and repeatability of findings. Structured questionnaires and official statistics tend to be highly reliable because they can be replicated by other researchers.
信度 涉及研究结果的一致性和可重复性。结构化问卷和官方统计往往信度较高，因为它们可以被其他研究者重复操作。
Sampling techniques include random, stratified, and snowball sampling. The choice of sample affects how far findings can be generalised to the wider population.
抽样技术 包括随机抽样、分层抽样和滚雪球抽样。样本的选择会影响研究结果能够在多大程度上推广到更广泛的总体。
3. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Social stratification is the hierarchical division of society based on factors such as class, gender, ethnicity, and age. It determines access to resources like wealth, power, and prestige.
社会分层 是基于阶级、性别、种族和年龄等因素对社会的等级划分。它决定了人们获得财富、权力和声望等资源的机会。
The class system is an open form of stratification where social position can be achieved through merit and mobility is possible, in contrast to closed systems like caste. Sociologists measure class using occupation, income, and lifestyle.
阶级体系 是一种开放的分层形式，社会地位可以通过功绩获得，并且存在流动的可能，这与种姓等封闭体系形成对比。社会学家使用职业、收入和生活方式来衡量阶级。
Relative poverty is defined in relation to the general living standards in a particular society. Even if individuals have the means to survive, they may still be excluded from participating fully in normal social activities.
相对贫困 是相对于特定社会的一般生活水平来定义的。即使个人拥有生存手段，他们仍可能被排斥在正常社会活动的充分参与之外。
Life chances refer to an individual’s opportunities to obtain things considered desirable in society, such as good health, education, and housing. Social class, gender, and ethnicity all influence life chances.
生活机会 指个人获得社会认为有价值的事物的机会，如良好的健康、教育和住房。社会阶级、性别和种族都会影响生活机会。
4. Family Diversity and Change | 家庭多样性与变迁
The nuclear family comprises two generations living together: parents and their dependent children. Functionalists often view it as the ideal unit for primary socialisation and the stabilisation of adult personalities.
核心家庭 由共同生活的两代人组成：父母及其未成年子女。功能主义者常将其视为初级社会化和成人人格稳定的理想单元。
The extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit, either living together or in close contact. Modified extended families maintain strong emotional bonds and support networks despite geographical separation.
扩展家庭 包括超出核心单元的亲属，或共同居住，或保持密切联系。改良的扩展家庭尽管地理上分离，仍维持着强烈的情感纽带和支持网络。
Conjugal roles can be segregated or joint. Segregated roles involve distinct tasks for husbands and wives, while joint roles mean couples share domestic work and leisure time more equally.
夫妻角色 可以是隔离的或联合的。隔离角色意味着丈夫和妻子承担不同的任务，而联合角色则意味着夫妻更平等地分担家务和休闲时间。
Divorce rates have risen due to legal reforms, changing social attitudes, and greater economic independence for women. This has contributed to greater family diversity, including lone-parent and reconstituted families.
离婚率 由于法律改革、社会观念的转变以及女性经济独立性的增强而上升。这导致了更大的家庭多样性，包括单亲家庭和重组家庭。
5. Education and Achievement | 教育与成就
Formal curriculum refers to the content deliberately taught in schools, such as subjects and timetabled lessons. The hidden curriculum consists of the unspoken norms, values, and attitudes transmitted through the everyday routines of school life.
正式课程 指学校中有意教授的内容，如科目和按课表安排的课程。隐性课程 则是由学校日常规范所传递的未明说的规范、价值观和态度。
Material deprivation means lacking the financial resources and physical equipment necessary to support educational success, such as adequate housing, books, and a quiet study space.
物质剥夺 指缺乏支持学业成功所需的财力和物质条件，如适当的住房、书本和安静的学习空间。
Cultural capital includes non-economic resources like knowledge, language skills, and tastes that give some students an advantage in the education system. Middle-class families often possess more cultural capital valued by schools.
文化资本 包括知识、语言技能和品味等非经济资源，它们为某些学生在教育体系中带来优势。中产阶级家庭通常拥有更多被学校看重的文化资本。
Labelling theory suggests that teachers may attach labels to students based on stereotypes, and these labels can become a self-fulfilling prophecy, affecting students’ performance and educational careers.
标签理论 认为教师可能根据刻板印象给学生贴上标签，而这些标签可能成为自我实现的预言，影响学生的表现和学业生涯。
6. Crime, Deviance and Social Control | 犯罪、越轨与社会控制
Deviance is behaviour that violates the norms and expectations of a particular society or social group. It is not always criminal — for instance, dressing unconventionally may be deviant but not illegal.
越轨 是违反特定社会或社会群体的规范和期望的行为。它并不总是犯罪行为——例如，穿着不同寻常可能是越轨行为，但并不违法。
Anomie is a concept developed by Durkheim to describe a state of normlessness, where rapid social change breaks down traditional moral guidelines, leading to higher rates of deviance.
失范 是涂尔干提出的概念，用来描述一种规范缺失的状态，在这种状态下，急剧的社会变化破坏了传统的道德准则，导致越轨率上升。
Differential association theory argues that criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with others who hold deviant norms and values. The frequency and intensity of these associations influence the likelihood of becoming deviant.
差异交往理论 认为犯罪行为是通过与持有越轨规范和价值观的人互动而习得的。这些交往的频次和强度会影响个体走向越轨的可能性。
White-collar crime is committed by individuals of high social status in the course of their professional occupations. It is often less visible and less severely punished than street crime, despite its significant economic impact.
白领犯罪 是由社会地位较高的个人在其职业过程中实施的犯罪。尽管其经济影响巨大，但通常不如街头犯罪显眼，受到的惩罚也较轻。
7. The Sociological Process of Research | 社会学研究过程
A hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It guides the direction of a research project and is either supported or refuted by the evidence collected.
假设 是关于两个或多个变量之间关系的可检验的陈述。它指导着研究项目的方向，并被收集的证据所支持或推翻。
Operationalisation is the process of defining a concept in measurable terms so that it can be studied empirically. For example, ‘social class’ might be operationalised by occupational category or income band.
操作化 是用可测量的术语定义概念，以便对其进行实证研究的过程。例如，“社会阶级”可能通过职业类别或收入区间来进行操作化。
Ethical considerations include informed consent, confidentiality, and protection from harm. Sociologists must balance the pursuit of knowledge with the rights and welfare of research participants.
伦理考量 包括知情同意、保密和避免伤害。社会学家必须在追求知识与研究参与者的权利和福祉之间取得平衡。
A pilot study is a small-scale trial run conducted before the main research. It helps identify potential problems with the research design, questions, or practical arrangements.
试点研究 是在主要研究之前进行的小规模试运行。它有助于发现研究设计、问题或实际安排中可能存在的问题。
8. Key Sociological Concepts | 关键社会学概念
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society, including norms, values, language, and behaviours. Primary socialisation occurs in the family, while secondary socialisation takes place in schools, peer groups, and the media.
社会化 是个体学习其社会文化的终身过程，包括规范、价值观、语言和行为。初级社会化发生在家庭中，而次级社会化则在学校、同辈群体和媒体中进行。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. Values are broader, deep-seated beliefs about what is good, right, and desirable.
规范 是在群体或社会中被认为可以接受的不成文行为规则。价值观 是关于什么是好的、正确的和可取的更为广泛和根深蒂固的信念。
Status can be ascribed (fixed at birth, such as gender or royalty) or achieved (earned through personal effort, such as becoming a doctor). Roles are the expected patterns of behaviour attached to a particular status.
地位 可以是先赋的（出生时就固定，如性别或皇室身份）或获得的（通过个人努力挣得，如成为医生）。角色 是附着于特定地位的预期行为模式。
Culture encompasses the shared way of life of a social group, including its language, rituals, clothing, and art. Subcultures are smaller groups within a dominant culture that have distinctive norms and values.
文化 包含一个社会群体的共享生活方式，包括其语言、仪式、服饰和艺术。亚文化 是主流文化中的较小群体，具有独特的规范和价值观。
9. Patterns of Family and Household | 家庭与住户模式
A household is a group of people who share a common residence and domestic arrangements, whether or not they are related by kinship. A family is a type of household based on ties of blood, marriage, or adoption.
住户 是指共享同一住所和家庭安排的一群人，无论他们是否有亲属关系。家庭则是基于血缘、婚姻或收养关系的一种住户形式。
Lone-parent families are those in which one parent lives with their dependent child or children. The majority of lone-parent households are headed by women, often facing economic and social challenges.
单亲家庭 是指单亲与其未成年子女共同生活的家庭。大多数单亲住户以女性为主，经常面临经济和社会上的挑战。
Reconstituted families involve partners bringing children from previous relationships together into a new family unit. This structure can create complex kinship networks and step-relationships.
重组家庭 涉及伴侣将来自先前关系的孩子带入新的家庭单元。这种结构可能产生复杂的亲属网络和继亲关系。
The symmetrical family is a concept by Young and Willmott describing a more equal division of domestic labour and shared decision-making between husbands and wives, though critics argue that full equality is rarely achieved.
对称家庭 是杨和威尔莫特提出的概念，描述夫妻之间家务劳动更平等的分工和共同决策，尽管批评者认为完全的平等很少实现。
10. Educational Policy and Inequality | 教育政策与不平等
Comprehensive education aims to provide all pupils with equal opportunities by abolishing selection at 11-plus and admitting all abilities into the same school. It was meant to reduce social-class inequalities but has been challenged by continuing gaps in attainment.
综合教育 旨在通过废除小升初的选拔性考试，让所有能力的学生进入同一学校，从而为所有学生提供平等机会。它本意是减少社会阶级不平等，却受到持续存在的成绩差距的挑战。
Marketisation of education introduces competition between schools, using league tables and parental choice to raise standards. Critics argue that it benefits middle-class families who can use their cultural and economic capital to access the best schools.
教育市场化 通过引入学校间的竞争，利用排名表和父母选择来提高标准。批评者认为它有利于中产阶级家庭，他们可以利用自己的文化和经济资本进入最好的学校。
The attainment gap refers to the persistent differences in educational outcomes between pupils from different social backgrounds, particularly those eligible for free school meals versus their peers.
成绩差距 指来自不同社会背景的学生之间持续存在的教育成果差异，特别是那些有资格获得免费校餐的学生与其同龄人之间的差异。
Streaming and setting are practices of grouping students according to perceived ability. Interactionists argue these processes often result in a self-fulfilling prophecy, with lower streams receiving less attention and lower expectations.
分轨与分组 是按照感知能力对学生进行分组的做法。互动论者认为这些过程往往会导致自我实现的预言，较低的分组获得较少的关注和较低的期望。
11. Sociological Analysis of Crime Data | 犯罪数据的社会学分析
Official crime statistics are collected by the police and government agencies. They are useful for identifying broad trends but have a dark figure of crime — unrecorded and unreported offences — due to factors like public trust and police priorities.
官方犯罪统计 由警方和政府机构收集。它们有助于识别宏观趋势，但存在犯罪黑数——由于公众信任和警方优先事项等因素而未记录和未报告的犯罪。
Victim surveys, such as the Crime Survey for England and Wales, ask a sample of the population about their experiences of crime, regardless of whether they reported it. These surveys tend to reveal higher rates of certain offences than official figures.
受害者调查，如英格兰和威尔士犯罪调查，询问一个样本群体他们的犯罪经历，无论他们是否报告。这些调查往往揭示某些犯罪的发生率高于官方数字。
Self-report studies ask individuals to disclose their own criminal or deviant behaviour, often anonymously. They help uncover hidden offending among groups that might not appear in official records.
自我报告研究 要求个人匿名披露自己的犯罪或越轨行为。它们有助于发现在官方记录中可能不会出现的群体中的隐性犯罪。
The social construction of crime statistics suggests that statistics are not objective facts but are shaped by the decisions of victims, witnesses, and police officers about what to report and record.
犯罪统计的社会建构 认为统计数字并非客观事实，而是由受害者、目击者和警官关于报告和记录什么的决定所塑造的。
12. Globalisation and Social Change | 全球化与社会变迁
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of societies across the world through economic, political, and cultural exchanges. It affects family life, migration patterns, and the way deviance is defined and controlled.
全球化 是通过经济、政治和文化交流使世界各地社会日益相互联系的过程。它影响着家庭生活、移民模式以及越轨的定义和控制方式。
Cultural homogenisation refers to the idea that globalisation promotes a single, uniform global culture, often driven by Western consumer brands and media. Its opponents argue that local cultures are becoming hybridised rather than replaced.
文化同质化 是指全球化推动了单一、统一的全球文化的观点，通常由西方消费品牌和媒体驱动。反对者认为，地方文化正在变得混杂融合，而非被取代。
Transnational corporations operate across multiple countries, influencing labour markets and economic inequalities. They may exploit low-wage workers in developing nations while generating profits in wealthier regions.
跨国公司 在多个国家运营，影响劳动力市场和经济不平等。它们可能在较富裕地区获得利润的同时，剥削发展中国家的低薪工人。
Global crime includes activities such as cybercrime, human trafficking, and the international drug trade. These crimes transcend national borders and require cross-national cooperation to address effectively.
全球性犯罪 包括网络犯罪、人口贩运和国际毒品贸易等活动。这些犯罪超越国界，需要跨国合作才能有效应对。
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