IGCSE WJEC Geography: Core Knowledge Overview | IGCSE WJEC 地理：核心知识点梳理

📚 IGCSE WJEC Geography: Core Knowledge Overview | IGCSE WJEC 地理：核心知识点梳理

IGCSE WJEC Geography provides a thorough grounding in both physical and human geography, along with essential geographical skills. This guide summarises the core knowledge you need: from river and coastal processes to population change, economic development, and sustainable management, all aligned with the WJEC specification.

IGCSE WJEC 地理课程为你打下自然与人文地理的扎实基础，并培养关键的地理技能。本指南梳理了核心必备知识：从河流海岸过程到人口变化、经济发展与可持续管理，紧扣 WJEC 考试大纲。

1. River Environments | 河流环境

A drainage basin is the area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. The hydrological cycle within it involves inputs (precipitation), stores (interception, soil water, groundwater), flows (infiltration, throughflow, groundwater flow) and outputs (evaporation, transpiration, river discharge).

流域是由河流及其支流汇水所覆盖的区域。其中的水循环包括输入（降水）、储存（截留、土壤水、地下水）、流动（下渗、壤中流、地下水流）和输出（蒸发、蒸腾、河川径流）。

Rivers shape the landscape through erosion, transport and deposition. The main erosion processes are hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition and solution. Transport occurs by traction, saltation, suspension and solution. Deposition happens when a river loses energy, for example on the inside of a meander or where a river enters a lake.

河流通过侵蚀、搬运和沉积作用塑造景观。主要侵蚀过程有水力作用、磨损、磨蚀和溶蚀。搬运方式包括推移、跃移、悬浮和溶解。当河流能量下降时发生沉积，例如在曲流内侧或河流入湖处。

Q = A × V

Discharge (Q, in m³/s) equals cross-sectional area (A, in m²) multiplied by velocity (V, in m/s). A higher discharge increases the river’s erosive power and flood risk.

流量 (Q, 单位 m³/s) 等于横截面积 (A, m²) 乘以流速 (V, m/s)。流量越大，河流侵蚀力和洪水风险越高。

Course	Valley shape	Channel features	Dominant processes	Landforms
Upper (上游)	V-shaped, steep sides	Narrow, shallow, large boulders	Vertical erosion	Waterfalls, gorges, interlocking spurs
Middle (中游)	Open, gently sloping	Wider, deeper, meanders	Lateral erosion, transport	Meanders, oxbow lakes
Lower (下游)	Very wide, flat floodplain	Wide, deep, large discharge	Deposition	Floodplains, levees, deltas

Flooding can be caused by prolonged rain, snowmelt, steep slopes or urbanisation. Hard engineering defences include dams and channel straightening; soft engineering uses floodplain zoning and afforestation. A hydrograph shows river discharge over time, revealing the lag time between peak rainfall and peak discharge.

洪水可能由持续降雨、融雪、陡坡或城市化引起。硬工程防御措施包括水坝和河道裁弯取直；软工程利用洪泛区规划和植树造林。流量过程线显示随时间变化的河川流量，揭示降雨峰值与流量峰值之间的滞后时间。

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2. Coastal Environments | 海岸环境

Waves are the main agent of coastal change. Constructive waves have a strong swash, building beaches, while destructive waves have a strong backwash, eroding material. Fetch is the distance over which wind blows, influencing wave energy.

波浪是海岸变化的主要动力。建设性波浪具有强劲的上冲流，堆积海滩；破坏性波浪则具有强劲的回冲流，侵蚀物质。风区长度是指风掠过的水面距离，影响波浪能量。

Coastal erosion produces distinct landforms. Headlands and bays form along alternating resistant and less resistant rock. Erosion on a headland can create caves, arches, stacks and stumps. Wave-cut platforms are exposed at low tide. Longshore drift transports sediment along the coast, creating depositional features such as beaches, spits, bars and tombolos.

海岸侵蚀形成独特的地貌。在软硬岩相间的海岸，形成岬角和海湾。岬角上的侵蚀可形成海蚀洞、海蚀拱、海蚀柱和海蚀残丘。低潮时暴露出浪蚀平台。沿岸漂移搬运沉积物，形成海滩、沙嘴、湾口沙洲和连岛沙洲等堆积地貌。

Coastal management strategies range from hard engineering (sea walls, groynes, rock armour) to soft engineering (beach nourishment, managed retreat). Hard structures often protect one area but accelerate erosion down-drift. Managed retreat allows the sea to flood low-value land, creating natural buffer zones.

海岸管理策略包括硬工程（海堤、丁坝、堆石护岸）和软工程（海滩补沙、管理后退）。硬性结构往往保护一个区域却加剧下游侵蚀。管理后退允许海水淹没低价值土地，形成天然缓冲区。

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3. Weather and Climate | 天气与气候

Weather describes short-term atmospheric conditions (temperature, precipitation, wind, cloud cover), while climate is the average weather over at least 30 years. The UK’s weather is affected by five main air masses: polar maritime, polar continental, tropical maritime, tropical continental and Arctic maritime.

天气描述短期大气状况（温度、降水、风、云量），而气候是至少30年的平均天气状况。英国的天气受五大气团影响：极地海洋气团、极地大陆气团、热带海洋气团、热带大陆气团和北极海洋气团。

Global climate zones include equatorial, tropical savanna, hot desert, warm temperate (Mediterranean), cool temperate (maritime) and polar. Climate is determined by latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, ocean currents and prevailing winds. Evidence for past climate change comes from ice cores, tree rings, pollen analysis and historical records.

全球气候带包括赤道、热带草原、热沙漠、暖温带（地中海）、凉温带（海洋性）和极地。气候由纬度、海拔、距海远近、洋流和盛行风决定。过去气候变化的证据来自冰芯、树木年轮、花粉分析和历史记录。

Natural causes of climate change include Milankovitch cycles (orbital variations), volcanic eruptions and solar output changes. Human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, have increased greenhouse gas concentrations, leading to enhanced global warming. Impacts include rising sea levels, more extreme weather and shifts in ecosystems.

气候变化的自然原因包括米兰科维奇循环（轨道变化）、火山喷发和太阳输出量变化。人类活动，尤其是燃烧化石燃料，增加了温室气体浓度，导致全球变暖加剧。其影响包括海平面上升、更极端天气和生态系统迁移。

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4. Ecosystems and Biomes | 生态系统与生物群系

An ecosystem consists of living organisms (biotic) interacting with their non-living (abiotic) environment. Key components are producers, consumers, decomposers, and the nutrient cycle transfers energy and matter. A biome is a large-scale ecosystem, such as tropical rainforest, savanna or taiga.

生态系统由生物成分（生产者、消费者、分解者）与非生物环境相互作用构成。关键组分包括生产者、消费者和分解者，营养循环传递能量和物质。生物群系是大尺度生态系统，例如热带雨林、稀树草原或泰加林。

Tropical rainforests are found near the equator. They have a hot, wet climate and a layered vegetation structure (emergents, canopy, understorey, forest floor). Soils are nutrient-poor because rapid decomposition and heavy rainfall leach nutrients. Plants show adaptations like drip-tips and buttress roots. Nutrient cycling is fast, with most nutrients stored in the biomass.

热带雨林分布于赤道附近，气候炎热潮湿，植被具有分层结构（露生层、树冠层、下层植被、森林底板）。土壤贫瘠，因为快速的分解与强降雨淋溶带走养分。植物演化出滴水叶尖和板根等适应特征。营养循环迅速，大部分养分储存在生物量中。

Hot deserts experience low, unreliable rainfall and large diurnal temperature ranges. Plants (e.g. cacti) have adaptations such as water storage, small spines and deep roots. Soils are thin and saline. Human activities, including overgrazing and deforestation, can lead to desertification, which is a major challenge in semi-arid regions such as the Sahel.

热沙漠降雨稀少且不稳定，气温日较差大。植物（如仙人掌）具有储水、刺状叶和深根系等适应特征。土壤薄而含盐。人类活动，包括过度放牧和砍伐森林，可能导致荒漠化，这是萨赫勒等半干旱地区面临的重大挑战。

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5. Population and Migration | 人口与迁移

Population distribution describes where people live, influenced by physical factors (climate, relief, water) and human factors (job opportunities, transport). Population density is the number of people per square kilometre. The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) shows how birth rates, death rates and total population change over time in five stages, linking to development.

人口分布描述人口的居住地，受自然因素（气候、地形、水源）和人文因素（就业机会、交通）影响。人口密度是每平方公里的居民数。人口过渡模型（DTM）展示了出生率、死亡率和总人口如何随时间演变的五个阶段，与经济发展水平相关联。

Population structure can be analysed using population pyramids. A wide base indicates high birth rates (Stage 1 or 2), while a more rectangular profile suggests low birth and death rates (Stage 4). Ageing populations in high-income countries create dependency challenges, whereas youthful populations in low-income countries strain education and health services.

利用人口金字塔可分析人口结构。底座宽大表明高出生率（阶段1或2），较均匀的长方形则表明低出生率和低死亡率（阶段4）。高收入国家的人口老龄化带来抚养负担挑战，而低收入国家的年轻人口结构给教育和医疗服务造成压力。

Migration is the movement of people with the intention of changing residence. Push factors (e.g. unemployment, war) drive people away; pull factors (e.g. better jobs, safety) attract them. Types include voluntary, forced, internal and international. Remittances from migrants can boost home economies, but departure of skilled workers (‘brain drain’) can hinder development.

迁移是指人们意图改变居住地的移动。推力因素（如失业、战争）促使人们离开；拉力因素（如更好工作、安全）吸引人们迁入。迁移类型包括自愿、被迫、国内和国际迁移。移民汇款能提振家乡经济，但技能劳工的离开（’人才外流’）可能阻碍发展。

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6. Settlements and Urbanisation | 聚落与城市化

Settlements vary in size and function from isolated dwellings to large cities. Hierarchy is based on population, services and sphere of influence. Land-use models like the Burgess concentric zone model and Hoyt sector model explain urban structure in MEDCs. In LEDCs, cities often show a CBD, elite housing sector and extensive informal settlements.

聚落规模与功能各异，从孤立住所到大城市。层级体系根据人口、服务数量和影响范围划分。伯吉斯同心圆模型和霍伊特扇形模型等土地利用模型解释了更发达国家的城市结构。在欠发达国家，城市往往呈现中心商务区、精英住宅区和广泛非正式聚落的格局。

Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. It is driven by rural-urban migration and natural increase. Rapid urbanisation in LEDCs leads to issues such as housing shortages, traffic congestion, pollution and inadequate sanitation. Counter-urbanisation in MEDCs involves movement from cities to rural areas, spurred by desire for green space and improved transport.

城市化是指城镇人口比例增加的过程，由农村向城市迁移和人口自然增长驱动。LEDCs 中的快速城市化带来住房短缺、交通拥堵、污染和卫生设施不足等问题。MEDCs 中的逆城市化指居民从城市迁往乡村，受到对绿色空间渴望和交通改善的推动。

Sustainable urban living aims to reduce ecological footprints. Strategies include brownfield site redevelopment, green belts, efficient public transport, renewable energy use and waste recycling. Examples such as Curitiba (Brazil) demonstrate integrated urban planning.

可持续城市生活旨在减少生态足迹。策略包括棕地再开发、绿化带、高效公共交通、可再生能源利用和废物回收。巴西库里蒂巴等案例展示了综合城市规划。

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7. Economic Activity and Development | 经济活动与发展

Economic activities are classified into primary (extraction), secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (services) and quaternary (research). The Clarke-Fisher model shows how employment structure shifts from primary to tertiary/quaternary as a country develops. De-industrialisation in MEDCs reflects a decline in secondary industry.

经济活动可分为第一产业（采掘）、第二产业（制造业）、第三产业（服务业）和第四产业（研发）。克拉克-费希尔模型显示，随着国家发展，就业结构如何从第一产业转向第三、第四产业。MEDCs 的去工业化反映了第二产业的下降。

Development is measured by indicators like GNI per capita, literacy rate, life expectancy and the Human Development Index (HDI). There is a global development gap between high-income countries (HICs) and low-income countries (LICs). Factors influencing development include historical (colonisation), physical (climate, resources) and economic (debt, trade) conditions.

发展程度通过人均GNI、识字率、预期寿命和人类发展指数（HDI）等指标衡量。高收入国家（HICs）与低收入国家（LICs）之间存在全球发展差距。影响发展的因素包括历史（殖民）、自然（气候、资源）和经济（债务、贸易）条件。

Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of the world through trade, investment and technology. Transnational corporations (TNCs) like Nike operate in multiple countries, benefiting from low labour costs and wide markets. Fair trade aims to give producers in LICs a guaranteed minimum price, supporting sustainable development.

全球化是通过贸易、投资和技术加强世界相互联系的过程。耐克等跨国公司在多国运营，利用低劳动力成本和广阔市场获利。公平贸易旨在为LICs生产者提供最低保证价格，支持可持续发展。

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8. Resource Issues and Sustainability | 资源问题与可持续发展

Resources are classified as renewable (solar, wind, water), non-renewable (fossil fuels, minerals) and flow resources (continually available like tides). The growing demand for energy is causing exploitation of fossil fuels and a shift towards renewables to reduce carbon emissions.

资源分为可再生（太阳能、风能、水能）、不可再生（化石燃料、矿产）和流动性资源（持续可用，如潮汐）。日益增长的能源需求导致化石燃料的大量开采，同时也在转向可再生能源以减少碳排放。

Water stress occurs where demand exceeds supply. Physical scarcity (arid regions) and economic scarcity (lack of infrastructure) both contribute. Strategies include water conservation, desalination and improving irrigation efficiency. In the UK, water transfer schemes move water from surplus to deficit areas.

用水压力出现在需求超过供给的地区。物理性缺水（干旱地区）和经济性缺水（缺乏基础设施）兼而有之。对策包括节水、海水淡化和提高灌溉效率。在英国，输水工程将水从盈余地区调往短缺地区。

Sustainable tourism seeks to minimise environmental damage and benefit local communities. Ecotourism in places like Costa Rica’s rainforests provides income while protecting ecosystems. The key principles are conservation, community participation and education.

可持续旅游旨在尽量减少环境破坏并惠及当地社区。哥斯达黎加热带雨林等地的生态旅游在保护生态系统的同时提供收入。其关键原则是保护、社区参与和教育。

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9. Tectonic Hazards | 板块构造灾害

The Earth’s crust is divided into plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle. Plate boundaries are divergent (constructive), convergent (destructive) and conservative (transform). Earthquakes occur along all boundaries; volcanoes are common at divergent and convergent margins.

地壳由多个板块组成，它们因地幔中的对流而移动。板块边界分张裂型（建设性）、汇聚型（破坏性）和转换型（保守型）。地震在各类边界均有发生；火山常见于张裂和汇聚边缘。

Earthquake magnitude is measured on the Richter and Moment Magnitude scales; Mercalli scale describes intensity. Effects include ground shaking, liquefaction, tsunamis and building collapse. Factors influencing impact include distance from epicentre, population density, level of development and building design.

地震震级用里氏和矩震级量表衡量；麦卡利烈度描述破坏程度。效应包括地面震动、液化、海啸和建筑倒塌。影响程度取决于距震中的距离、人口密度、发展水平和建筑设计等因素。

Volcanoes can be shield (broad, gentle, basaltic) or composite (steep, explosive, andesitic). Hazards include lava flows, ash fall, pyroclastic flows and lahars. Monitoring uses seismometers, tiltmeters and gas sampling; preparations involve evacuation plans and land-use zoning.

火山可分为盾状（宽缓、玄武岩质）和复合型（陡峭、爆发性、安山岩质）。灾害包括熔岩流、火山灰沉降、火山碎屑流和火山泥流。通过地震仪、倾斜仪和气体采样进行监测；防灾准备包括疏散计划和土地利用分区。

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10. Geographical Skills | 地理技能

Map skills are fundamental: scale can be expressed as a ratio (1:25 000), statement (1 cm to 250 m) or linear scale. Four-figure grid references locate a square; six-figure references pinpoint a precise location. Contour lines show height and gradient; close contours indicate steep slopes. Cross-sections illustrate relief from spot heights and contours.

地图技能是基础：比例尺可用数字比例尺（1:25 000）、文字比例尺（1厘米代表250米）或直线比例尺表示。四位数字网格坐标定位方格，六位数字坐标精确定点。等高线显示高度和坡度；等高线密集表明陡坡。剖面图利用高程点和等高线展示地形起伏。

Fieldwork follows an enquiry sequence: identify a question/hypothesis, collect primary and secondary data, present data (graphs, maps, photographs), analyse results and draw conclusions. Sampling strategies (random, systematic,

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