📚 Year 13 SQA Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorization Guide | Year 13 SQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering SQA Philosophy at Year 13 means not only understanding complex arguments but also having a firm grip on the precise terminology examiners expect. This guide breaks down the most essential philosophical terms into memorable chunks, offering English explanations followed by Chinese translations to reinforce learning. Whether you are tackling epistemology, ethics, or philosophy of mind, these definitions and memory hooks will streamline your revision and boost your confidence for the final assessment.
要在 Year 13 的 SQA 哲学考试中脱颖而出，你不仅要理解复杂的论证，更要精准掌握考官所期待的术语。本指南将最重要的哲学术语拆解成容易记忆的单元，提供英文解释并紧接着给出中文翻译来巩固理解。无论你正在攻克认识论、伦理学还是心灵哲学，这些定义和记忆挂钩都将简化你的复习过程，并为最终评估增添信心。
1. Core Epistemology Terms | 认识论核心术语
A priori knowledge is justification that does not depend on sense experience; you can know it simply by thinking, such as ‘All bachelors are unmarried’.
先验知识是指不依赖于感官经验的辩护；单靠思考就能知道，例如“所有单身汉都是未婚的”。
A posteriori knowledge requires empirical investigation and sense data — for instance, ‘The cat is on the mat’ can only be verified by looking.
后验知识则需要经验调查和感觉材料——比如“猫在垫子上”只能通过观察来证实。
Analytic propositions are true in virtue of the meanings of the words alone; ‘Triangles have three sides’ is analytic because the predicate is contained in the subject.
分析命题仅凭词语的意义就为真；“三角形有三条边”是分析命题，因为谓词已包含在主词之中。
Synthetic propositions add information beyond the concept; ‘The cat is black’ tells us something extra about the world that is not contained in the idea of a cat.
综合命题则为概念增添了额外信息；“那只猫是黑色的”告诉我们关于世界的额外事实，它并不包含在猫的概念里。
2. Rationalism and Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism claims that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and that the mind possesses innate ideas prior to experience. Descartes’ trademark argument and concept of clear and distinct ideas exemplify this stance.
理性主义主张理性是知识的主要来源，心灵在经验之前就拥有天赋观念。笛卡尔的“商标论证”以及清晰明白的观念概念就是这一立场的例证。
Empiricism asserts that all knowledge originates in sense experience; the mind begins as a tabula rasa (blank slate). Locke, Berkeley, and Hume all reject innate ideas, insisting that concepts are built from sensory impressions.
经验主义则断言一切知识都来源于感官经验；心灵最初是一块白板。洛克、贝克莱和休谟都拒斥天赋观念，坚持概念是由感官印象构建而成的。
Hume’s Fork divides all meaningful propositions into relations of ideas (analytic a priori) and matters of fact (synthetic a posteriori). Any statement that fails both tests, he says, should be committed to the flames.
休谟之叉将所有有意义的命题划分为观念的关系（分析先验）和事实（综合后验）。他说，任何通不过这两项检验的陈述都该被付之一炬。
3. Key Metaphysical Concepts | 形而上学关键概念
Necessary truths are those that could not have been false in any possible world; for example, 2+2=4 is necessarily true. Contingent truths could have been otherwise; ‘Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland’ is true but could have been different.
必然真理是在任何可能世界中都不可能为假的真理；比如2+2=4是必然真的。偶然真理则可能不是如此；“爱丁堡是苏格兰的首都”为真，但它本可不同。
Determinism holds that every event, including human actions, is causally determined by prior states and the laws of nature. Libertarianism denies this, insisting that free will is incompatible with determinism and that agents have genuine choice.
决定论认为每一个事件，包括人类行为，都是由先前状态和自然规律因果决定的。自由意志论则否认这一点，坚称自由意志与决定论不相容，且行动者拥有真正的选择。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) reconciles free will with determinism by redefining freedom as acting according to one’s desires without external coercion, even if those desires are themselves determined.
相容论（温和决定论）通过将自由重新定义为不受外部强制地按照个人欲望行事来调和自由意志与决定论，即便这些欲望本身是被决定的。
4. Philosophy of Mind Terminology | 心灵哲学术语
Substance dualism, championed by Descartes, argues that mind and body are two fundamentally different substances: mental substance is non-extended and thinking, while physical substance is extended and non-thinking.
实体二元论由笛卡尔倡导，主张心灵与身体是两种根本不同的实体：心灵实体是非广延且能思维的，而物理实体是广延且不能思维的。
Property dualism holds that there is only one kind of substance (physical), but mental properties are irreducible to physical properties. Qualia — the subjective, qualitative feel of experience — are often cited to support this view.
属性二元论认为只存在一种实体（物理的），但心理属性无法还原为物理属性。感受质——经验的主观、质性感受——常被用来支持这一观点。
Functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles: an input, a functional process, and an output. On this view, a mind could in principle be realised by anything (even a computer) that performs the same functions.
功能主义通过因果角色来定义心理状态：输入、功能过程和输出。根据这一观点，原则上任何能够执行相同功能的系统（甚至计算机）都可以实现心灵。
5. Ethical Theories and Principles | 伦理理论与原则
Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill) is a consequentialist theory that judges actions by the amount of happiness or pleasure they produce. The Greatest Happiness Principle demands maximising utility for the greatest number.
功利主义（边沁、密尔）是一种后果主义理论，通过行动所产生的幸福或快乐量来判断行为。最大幸福原则要求为最大多数人实现最大效用。
Deontology (Kant) focuses on duty and the intrinsic rightness of actions, regardless of consequences. The Categorical Imperative commands that we act only on maxims that could be willed as universal law, and that we treat humanity never merely as a means.
义务论（康德）聚焦于责任与行为本身的内在正当性，而不论后果。定言命令要求我们只按照能够同时意愿其成为普遍法则的准则行动，并且始终把人性当作目的，而非仅仅是手段。
Virtue ethics (Aristotle) shifts the focus from acts to character, asking what a virtuous person would do. It emphasises eudaimonia (flourishing) and the doctrine of the mean, where virtue lies between excess and deficiency.
美德伦理学（亚里士多德）将焦点从行为转向品格，追问一个有德之人会如何做。它强调 eudaimonia（繁荣/生命兴盛）和中庸之道，即美德存在于过度与不及之间。
6. Logical Fallacies and Argument Types | 逻辑谬误与论证类型
A deductive argument aims to provide conclusive support for its conclusion; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Inductive arguments aim to make the conclusion probable, but not guaranteed.
演绎论证旨在为结论提供必然支持；如果前提为真，结论必然为真。归纳论证则旨在使结论具有或然性，但并不保证。
The fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when one argues: If P then Q, Q, therefore P. A valid form would be modus ponens (If P then Q, P, therefore Q).
肯定后件的谬误发生在如下推理中：如果 P 则 Q，Q，所以 P。有效的形式是肯定前件（如果 P 则 Q，P，所以 Q）。
Begging the question (petitio principii) assumes the very point that is at issue. For example, ‘We know the Bible is true because it says it is true’ circularly uses the conclusion as a premise.
丐题（窃取论点）把争议中的论点本身当作了前提。例如，“我们知道圣经是真的，因为圣经里说它是真的”就循环地把结论当作了前提。
7. Famous Arguments in Philosophy | 著名哲学论证
Descartes’ Cogito (‘I think, therefore I am’) is his foundational certainty after methodic doubt. Even if an evil demon deceives him, he must exist to be deceived.
笛卡尔的“我思故我在”是他方法论怀疑之后找到的基础确定性。即便有一个邪恶的魔鬼在欺骗他，他也必须存在才能被欺骗。
Anselm’s ontological argument defines God as ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ and argues that such a being must exist in reality, because existing in reality is greater than existing only in the understanding.
安瑟伦的本体论论证将上帝定义为“不能设想有比之更伟大的存在者”，并论证这样一个存在者必定实际存在，因为存在于现实中比仅仅存在于理智中更伟大。
Paley’s teleological argument uses the watchmaker analogy: a watch implies a watchmaker, so the complexity of the natural world implies an intelligent designer. Hume’s criticisms of this analogical reasoning remain central to the debate.
佩利的意图论证使用了钟表匠类比：钟表意味着钟表匠的存在，因此自然世界的复杂性意味着一个智能设计者。休谟对这种类比推理的批评至今仍是辩论核心。
8. Influential Philosophers and Their Terminology | 有影响力的哲学家及其术语
Plato’s Theory of Forms posits a realm of perfect, unchanging archetypes (Forms) that are more real than the physical world. The Form of the Good is the ultimate source of reality and knowledge.
柏拉图的理型论设定了一个由完美不变的范型（理型）构成的领域，比物理世界更为真实。善的理型是实在与知识的终极源泉。
Aristotle introduced the Four Causes to explain why things exist: material cause (what it’s made of), formal cause (its essence), efficient cause (what brought it about), and final cause (its purpose, telos).
亚里士多德提出四因说来解释事物的存在：质料因（由什么构成）、形式因（其本质）、动力因（是什么引发了它）和目的因（其目的，telos）。
Kant’s Copernican Revolution suggests that objects must conform to our cognition, rather than our cognition conforming to objects. This led to his distinction between phenomena (things as they appear) and noumena (things in themselves).
康德的哥白尼式革命提出，对象必须符合我们的认知，而非我们的认知符合对象。这引出了他对现象（显现之物）与物自体（自在之物）的区分。
9. Exam Command Words | 考试指令词
‘Explain’ requires you to give a detailed account of a concept or argument, clarifying its meaning and often providing an example. Do not simply list features; show how they connect.
“解释”要求你对一个概念或论证做出详细说明，厘清其含义，并通常需要提供例子。不要只是罗列特征，要展示它们是如何联系的。
‘Evaluate’ demands critical judgement. You must present arguments for and against a view, weigh the evidence, and reach a justified conclusion. Use phrases like ‘This is convincing because…’ or ‘However, a key weakness is…’
“评估”要求进行批判性判断。你必须陈述对一个观点的支持和反对的论证，权衡证据，并得出有理有据的结论。可以使用诸如“这一点的说服力在于……”或“然而，一个关键的弱点是……”这样的表述。
‘To what extent…’ asks you to consider the limits of a claim. Your answer should acknowledge the strengths of the position but also explore its boundaries or counter-arguments, arriving at a balanced final stance.
“在多大程度上……”要求你考量某个主张的界限。你的回答应该承认该立场的优点，但也探讨其局限性或反对论证，最终得出一个平衡的立场。
10. Memory Hacks for Philosophy Terms | 哲学术语记忆技巧
Create vivid visual stories for abstract terms. Imagine a ‘priori’ as a private eye (‘prior’ to seeing) who solves cases without leaving his desk — that is a priori knowledge. Contrast with a ‘post’ man who delivers letters only after observing the addresses (a posteriori).
为抽象术语构建生动的视觉故事。想象“先验”（a priori）是一位“在前的”(prior)私家侦探，不用离开桌子就能破案——这就是先验知识。与之对比，“后验”（a posteriori）好比一个邮递员，必须看过地址才能投递信件。
Link the name of a philosopher to a key, quirky image: Descartes sitting in a large ‘C’ (Cogito) while doubting everything; Hume with a giant fork separating ideas and facts; Kant walking with two layers of glasses — one for phenomena, one hidden for noumena.
把哲学家的名字和一个关键又古怪的图像联系起来：笛卡尔一边怀疑一切，一边坐在一个大大的“C”（Cogito）里；休谟拿着一把巨大的叉子分开观念和事实；康德戴着两层眼镜走路——一层看现象，一层隐藏着看物自体。
Turn ethical theories into memorable acronyms: USE (Utilitarianism: Sum of Everyone’s happiness), DUTY (Deontology: Universalise, Treat humanity, You must act), and VICE (Virtue ethics: Intelligence, Character, Eudaimonia). Regularly test yourself by writing these down from memory.
把伦理理论变成容易记住的首字母缩略词：USE（功利主义：求和每个人的幸福）、DUTY（义务论：普遍化、对待人性、你必须行动）和 VICE（美德伦理学：理智、品格、Eudaimonia）。定期给自己做测验，凭记忆默写出来。
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