📚 AS CIE Sociology: Key Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Reference Guide | AS CIE 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociological terminology is essential for success in AS CIE Sociology. This guide provides a structured, bilingual collection of key terms across major topics, with each concept explained first in English and then in Chinese, helping you build a strong foundation for essays and exam responses.
掌握社会学术语对在 AS CIE 社会学考试中取得好成绩至关重要。本指南按核心主题整理关键词汇，每个概念先用英文解释，再给出对应的中文释义，帮助你为论文和考试答题打下扎实基础。
1. Core Sociological Perspectives | 核心社会学视角
Functionalism: A consensus theory that sees society as a system of interdependent parts working together to maintain stability and social order. Key thinkers: Durkheim, Parsons.
功能主义（结构功能主义）：一种共识理论，认为社会由相互依赖的部分组成，共同维护稳定和社会秩序。代表人物：涂尔干、帕森斯。
Marxism: A conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx, arguing that society is defined by class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
马克思主义：基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突理论，认为社会由资产阶级（生产资料所有者）和无产阶级（工人）之间的阶级斗争所塑造。
Feminism: A perspective that highlights gender inequality and patriarchy, aiming to understand and end women’s subordination. Variants include liberal, radical, and Marxist feminism.
女性主义：强调性别不平等和父权制的视角，旨在理解并终结女性的从属地位。包括自由女性主义、激进女性主义和马克思主义女性主义等变体。
Symbolic Interactionism: A micro-level theory focusing on how individuals create meaning through social interaction, using symbols, language, and gestures. Key thinker: Mead.
符号互动论：一种微观层面的理论，关注个体如何通过社会互动、符号、语言和姿态创造意义。代表人物：米德。
Postmodernism: A late 20th-century approach rejecting grand narratives, emphasizing diversity, fragmentation, and the role of media and consumption in shaping identities.
后现代主义：20世纪后期兴起的视角，拒绝宏大叙事，强调多样性、碎片化以及媒体和消费在身份塑造中的作用。
2. Research Methods & Design | 研究方法与设计
Validity: The extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure, producing findings that closely reflect social reality.
效度：研究方法在多大程度上测量了它声称要测量的内容，研究结果能真实反映社会现实的程度。
Reliability: The consistency of a measure; if the same method is used again under similar conditions, it should yield similar results.
信度：测量的一致性；如果在相似条件下重复使用同一方法，应得到相似结果。
Primary Data: Information collected firsthand by the researcher for a specific purpose, e.g., questionnaires, interviews, observations.
一手数据：研究者为特定目的首次收集的信息，如问卷、访谈、观察。
Secondary Data: Information that already exists, collected by someone else, e.g., official statistics, historical documents, previous studies.
二手数据：已存在的、由他人收集的信息，如官方统计数据、历史文献、既往研究。
Triangulation: The use of two or more research methods in the same study to cross-check results and increase validity and reliability.
三角验证（多元方法）：在同一研究中采用两种或两种以上研究方法，以交叉验证结果，提高效度和信度。
Sampling Frame: A list of all members of the target population from which a sample is drawn.
抽样框：包含目标总体全部成员的名册，从中抽取样本。
3. Socialisation & Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Primary Socialisation: The earliest and most crucial phase of socialisation, occurring in early childhood within the family, where basic norms, values, and language are learned.
初级社会化：社会化最早、最关键的阶段，发生在幼儿期的家庭环境中，学习基础规范、价值观和语言。
Secondary Socialisation: The ongoing process of learning appropriate behaviour in wider society, through agencies such as education, peer groups, media, and work.
次级社会化：在教育、同辈群体、媒体和职场等机构中，持续学习更广泛社会中恰当行为的过程。
Agents of Socialisation: The individuals, groups, and institutions that shape an individual’s social development, e.g., family, school, religion, mass media.
社会化媒介：塑造个体社会发展的个人、群体和制度，例如家庭、学校、宗教、大众传媒。
Role Conflict: When an individual faces incompatible demands from two or more roles they hold simultaneously, e.g., being both a parent and an employee.
角色冲突：个体同时承担的两个或多个角色提出互不相容的要求时产生的冲突，例如既为人父母又身为雇员。
Looking-glass Self (Cooley): The idea that our self-image is based on how we think others see us, a process central to identity formation.
镜中我（库利）：认为自我形象建立在我们如何想象他人看待我们的基础上，是身份形成的关键过程。
4. Culture & Norms | 文化与规范
Culture: The totality of learned, shared symbols, language, values, and norms that distinguish one group of people from another.
文化：一个群体区别于另一个群体的一切习得、共享的符号、语言、价值观和规范的总和。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is good, right, and desirable in a society, providing general guidelines for behaviour.
价值观：一个社会中关于何为好、正确和可欲的深层信念，为行为提供一般性指引。
Norms: Specific rules of behaviour in particular social situations, rooted in values. They can be formal (laws) or informal (customs).
规范：在特定社会情境中基于价值观的具体行为规则，可以是正式的（法律）或非正式的（习俗）。
Subculture: A group within a larger culture that has its own distinctive norms, values, and lifestyles, while still sharing aspects of the mainstream culture.
亚文化：更大文化内部的一个群体，拥有自己独特的规范、价值观和生活方式，同时仍分享主流文化的某些方面。
Cultural Relativism: The principle of understanding cultures on their own terms without judging them by the standards of another culture.
文化相对主义：以各文化自身的标准去理解该文化，而不以其他文化的标准加以评判的原则。
5. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social Stratification: A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy, based on factors like class, status, and power.
社会分层：社会根据阶级、地位和权力等因素，将不同人群排列成等级体系的系统。
Social Class: A group of people sharing a similar economic position, often measured by occupation, income, wealth, and education. Marx and Weber offered different models.
社会阶级：具有相似经济地位的一群人，通常以职业、收入、财富和教育来衡量。马克思和韦伯提出了不同的阶级模型。
Life Chances (Weber): The opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life, shaped by their class position, status, and power.
生活机会（韦伯）：个体改善生活品质的机会，受其阶级地位、身份和权力影响。
Meritocracy: A system in which social positions are allocated on the basis of individual talent and effort rather than ascribed characteristics. Functionalists argue modern societies are meritocratic.
精英主义（贤能主义）：根据个人才能和努力而非先赋特征分配社会地位的一种体系。功能主义者认为现代社会是精英主义的。
Social Mobility: Movement of individuals or groups between different social positions within the stratification system, which can be upward, downward, horizontal, or intergenerational.
社会流动：个体或群体在分层体系内不同社会位置之间的移动，包括向上流动、向下流动、水平流动和代际流动。
6. Family & Household | 家庭与住户
Nuclear Family: A two-generation family unit consisting of parents and their dependent children, often living together. Functionalists regard it as universal and essential.
核心家庭：由父母及其受抚养子女组成的两代人家庭单位，通常同住。功能主义者视其为普遍且必不可少。
Extended Family: A family structure involving relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, and cousins, often living in close proximity or sharing resources.
大家庭（扩展家庭）：超出核心家庭的亲属结构，包括祖父母、叔伯姑姨、堂表亲等，常常住在附近或共享资源。
Conjugal Roles: The roles played by husband and wife within the household. Segregated roles involve separate tasks and leisure; joint roles involve shared domestic duties and decision-making.
夫妻角色：丈夫和妻子在户内扮演的角色。分离角色指夫妻各自承担不同家务和休闲；联合角色指夫妻分担家务和决策。
Divorce Rate: A statistical measure of the number of divorces per year, often expressed per 1,000 population. Sociologists examine causes such as legal changes, secularisation, and women’s economic independence.
离婚率：每年离婚数量的统计指标，常以每千人中离婚人数表示。社会学家研究法律变革、世俗化和女性经济独立等原因。
Family Diversity: The variety of family forms present in contemporary society, including lone-parent families, reconstituted families, same-sex parents, and cohabiting couples.
家庭多样性：当代社会中存在的多种家庭形式，包括单亲家庭、重组家庭、同性双亲家庭和同居伴侣。
7. Education | 教育
Hidden Curriculum: The informal lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school beyond the official curriculum, such as obedience, punctuality, and acceptance of hierarchy.
隐性课程：学生在学校官方课程之外学到的非正式课程、价值观和观点，如服从、守时和接受等级制度。
Cultural Capital (Bourdieu): The knowledge, language, attitudes, and values possessed by the middle class, which the education system rewards, thus reproducing class inequality.
文化资本（布尔迪厄）：中产阶级拥有的知识、语言、态度和价值观，教育体制对这些予以奖励，从而再生产阶级不平等。
Material Deprivation: Lack of physical resources and income that can affect a child’s educational achievement, e.g., poor housing, reduced access to private tuition.
物质匮乏：影响儿童教育成就的物质资源和收入的欠缺，如住房条件差、无法获得私人辅导。
Labelling Theory: The idea that teachers attach labels to students based on stereotyped assumptions, which become self-fulfilling prophecies that shape performance.
标签理论：认为教师基于刻板印象给学生贴上标签，这些标签进而成为自我实现的预言，影响学生的学业表现。
Marketisation of Education: Policies that introduce market principles into education, such as school choice, league tables, and formula funding, increasing competition between schools.
教育市场化：将市场原则引入教育领域的政策，如择校、学校排名和公式拨款，加剧学校间竞争。
8. Media & Technology | 媒体与科技
Mass Media: Forms of communication designed to reach large audiences, including television, newspapers, radio, and digital platforms. They play a key role in socialisation, agenda-setting, and ideological transmission.
大众传媒：旨在触达大量受众的传播形式，包括电视、报纸、广播和数字平台，在社会化、议程设置和意识形态传播中扮演关键角色。
Moral Panic (Cohen): An exaggerated media reaction to a group or issue perceived as a threat to social order, leading to heightened public concern and calls for stronger social control.
道德恐慌（科恩）：媒体对被视为对社会秩序构成威胁的群体或议题作出的夸大反应，引发公众焦虑并呼吁加强社会控制。
Digital Divide: The gap between those who have access to digital technology and the internet and those who do not, linked to socioeconomic inequality, age, and geography.
数字鸿沟：能获取数字技术和互联网的人群与无法获取的人群之间的差距，与社会经济不平等、年龄和地理因素相关。
Hypodermic Syringe Model: An early media effects theory suggesting that media messages are directly ‘injected’ into passive audiences and have an immediate, powerful influence.
皮下注射模型：早期的媒体效果理论，认为媒体信息直接”注射”给被动的受众，产生即时而强大的影响。
Citizen Journalism: The reporting of news by members of the public using digital tools, challenging traditional gatekeeping roles of professional journalists.
公民新闻：公众成员使用数字工具进行新闻报道，挑战专业记者的传统把关人角色。
9. Power, Politics & the State | 权力、政治与国家
Power (Weber): The ability of an individual or group to achieve their will even in the face of resistance from others. Authority is legitimate power, accepted by those subject to it.
权力（韦伯）：个体或群体即使面对他人抵抗也能实现自身意志的能力。权威是正当化的权力，被统治者所接受。
State: A set of institutions with ultimate authority to make laws and govern a given territory, including the government, civil service, police, and military.
国家：拥有最高权威在一个既定领土内制定法律和实施统治的一整套机构，包括政府、公务员、警察和军队。
Pluralism: A theory that power is distributed among many competing interest groups in society, and no single group dominates. Policies reflect compromise and negotiation.
多元主义：一种认为权力分散在众多相互竞争的群体中，没有单一群体能主宰的理论。政策反映妥协与协商。
Elite Theory: The view that a small, unified ruling class or elite holds the real power, regardless of formal democratic structures. Mills identified a ‘power elite’ of corporate, military, and political leaders.
精英理论：无论形式上的民主结构如何，实际权力掌握在少数统一的统治阶级或精英手中的观点。米尔斯识别出企业、军事和政治领袖构成的”权力精英”。
10. Crime & Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance: Behaviour that violates social norms, whether or not it is illegal. Deviance is socially constructed; it changes across time, place, and culture.
越轨：违反社会规范的行为，不论其是否违法。越轨是社会建构的，随时代、地点和文化而变化。
Anomie (Durkheim): A state of normlessness where social norms lose their power to regulate behaviour, often occurring during periods of rapid social change. Merton later adapted it to explain crime.
失范（涂尔干）：社会规范失去行为调节力量的一种无序状态，常发生在社会急剧变革时期。默顿后来发展了这一概念来解释犯罪。
White-collar Crime (Sutherland): Crime committed by persons of high social status and respectability in the course of their occupations, often involving fraud, embezzlement, or insider trading.
白领犯罪（萨瑟兰）：社会地位高、可敬的人士在其职业过程中实施的犯罪行为，常涉及欺诈、挪用或内幕交易。
Moral Panic & Folk Devils: A concept linking media, deviance, and social reaction, where a particular group becomes defined as a threat to societal values and is targeted for exaggerated condemnation.
道德恐慌与民间恶魔：将媒体、越轨和社会反应联系起来的概念，指某个特定群体被界定为对社会价值的威胁，成为放大谴责的对象。
Labelling & Deviancy Amplification: The process by which societal reaction and labelling of an act as deviant can increase the likelihood of further deviance, leading to a spiral of escalation.
标签与越轨放大：社会反应和将某一行为贴上越轨标签的过程可能增加该行为再次发生的可能性，导致越轨螺旋式升级。
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