📚 GCSE CIE Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | GCSE CIE 心理学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook distils the most important formulas, laws, and theorems you need to master for GCSE CIE Psychology. From memory models and learning theories to research methods and statistics, these concise principles will speed up your revision and deepen your understanding.
本速查手册浓缩了 GCSE CIE 心理学中必须掌握的重要公式、定律和定理。从记忆模型、学习理论到研究方法和统计，这些简洁的原理将帮助你快速复习、加深理解。
1. Multi-Store Model of Memory | 记忆的多存储模型
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed that memory consists of three stores. The flow of information can be written as: Sensory register → Attention → Short-term memory → Rehearsal → Long-term memory. Without rehearsal, information is lost through decay or displacement.
Atkinson 和 Shiffrin（1968）提出记忆由三个存储库组成。信息流的公式可表示为：感觉登记→注意→短时记忆→复述→长时记忆。若不进行复述，信息会因消退或替代而丢失。
SR → (attention) → STM → (rehearsal) → LTM
Capacity and duration differ: the sensory register has a very large capacity but a duration of less than 1 second; STM capacity is limited, with a duration of about 18–30 seconds; LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and duration.
容量和时程各不相同：感觉登记容量极大但时程不足1秒；短时记忆容量有限，时程约18–30秒；长时记忆容量和时程几乎无限。
2. Miller’s Law (7 ± 2) | 米勒定律（7±2）
George Miller (1956) concluded that the average person can hold 7 ± 2 chunks of information in short-term memory. A ‘chunk’ is a meaningful unit; chunking can expand effective capacity.
George Miller（1956）得出普通人在短时记忆中能保留7±2个组块。组块是有意义的信息单元；通过组块化可以扩大有效容量。
STM span = 7 ± 2 chunks
Later research suggested the capacity may be closer to 4 chunks, especially when rehearsal is prevented, but the classic “magic number” remains a key theorem for revision.
后来的研究提示，尤其是当复述被阻断时，容量可能更接近4个组块，但这一经典的”神奇数字”仍是复习的关键定理。
3. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve & Savings Formula | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线与节省公式
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) studied forgetting using nonsense syllables. He measured savings: the reduction in time needed to relearn material. The savings formula is: Savings % = (Original time – Relearning time) / Original time × 100. The famous forgetting curve shows a steep initial drop in memory, followed by a more gradual decline.
Hermann Ebbinghaus（1885）使用无意义音节研究遗忘。他测量了节省量：重新学习所需时间的减少。节省公式为：节省百分比 =（原始学习时间 – 重新学习时间）/ 原始学习时间 × 100。著名的遗忘曲线显示记忆起初急剧下降，之后逐渐减缓。
Savings % = (T1 – T2) / T1 × 100
Key conclusion: much forgetting occurs within the first hour, but meaningful material is better remembered. Spaced practice can counteract the curve.
关键结论：大量遗忘发生在第一个小时之内，但有意义的材料更容易被记住。分散练习可以对抗遗忘曲线。
4. Classical Conditioning Formula | 经典条件反射公式
Pavlov’s classical conditioning can be expressed as a sequence of associations:
Before conditioning: Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) → Unconditioned response (UCR); Neutral stimulus (NS) → No specific response.
During conditioning: NS + UCS → UCR (repeated pairings).
After conditioning: Conditioned stimulus (CS, formerly NS) → Conditioned response (CR).
巴甫洛夫的经典条件反射可以用一系列关联来表示：条件反射建立前：非条件刺激（UCS）→ 非条件反应（UCR）；中性刺激（NS）→ 无特定反应。建立中：NS + UCS → UCR（多次配对）。建立后：条件刺激（CS，原NS）→ 条件反应（CR）。
UCS → UCR ; NS + UCS → UCR ; CS → CR
Key principles include extinction (losing the CR when CS is presented alone), spontaneous recovery, generalisation, and discrimination.
关键原理包括消退（单独呈现CS时CR消失）、自然恢复、泛化和分化。
5. Operant Conditioning Theorem | 操作性条件反射定理
Skinner’s operant conditioning states that behaviour is controlled by its consequences. The basic ‘law of effect’ can be written as:
Reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behaviour.
Punishment (positive or negative) decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
斯金纳的操作性条件反射指出行为由其后果控制。基本的”效果律”可写作：强化（正或负）增加行为发生的可能性。惩罚（正或负）减少行为发生的可能性。
Behaviour ↑ with Reinforcement ; Behaviour ↓ with Punishment
Schedules of reinforcement (fixed/variable, interval/ratio) produce different patterns of responding, with variable schedules creating steadier rates.
强化时间表（固定/可变、时距/比率）会产生不同的反应模式，可变时间表的反应速率更平稳。
6. Conformity Formula: Two Processes | 从众的双过程公式
Deutsch and Gerard (1955) proposed two core reasons for conformity: Normative social influence (the desire to be liked and gain approval) and Informational social influence (the desire to be right, looking to others for information). Conformity can be expressed as:
Deutsch 和 Gerard（1955）提出从众的两个核心原因：规范性社会影响（渴望被喜欢，获得认同）和信息性社会影响（渴望正确，依赖他人信息）。从众可以表示为：
Conformity = Normative influence + Informational influence
In addition, factors such as group size, unanimity, and task difficulty can amplify or reduce conformity.
此外，群体规模、一致性和任务难度等因素会放大或弱化从众程度。
7. Research Variables & Hypothesis Formula | 研究变量与假设公式
In any experiment, the Independent Variable (IV) is manipulated, and the Dependent Variable (DV) is measured. A hypothesis can be expressed as:
Experimental hypothesis (H1): Changing the IV will cause a change in the DV.
Null hypothesis (H0): Changing the IV will have no effect on the DV; any observed difference is due to chance.
在任何实验中，自变量（IV）被操纵，因变量（DV）被测量。假设可表达为：实验假设（H1）：改变 IV 将导致 DV 的改变。虚无假设（H0）：改变 IV 对 DV 没有影响；任何观察到的差异是由偶然因素造成的。
If IV changes → DV changes (H1) ; If IV changes → DV remains unchanged (H0)
Standardised procedures and control of extraneous variables are essential to test the hypotheses fairly.
标准化程序和额外变量的控制对于公平检验假设至关重要。
8. Descriptive Statistics Formulas | 描述统计公式
GCSE CIE Psychology requires you to calculate and interpret basic descriptive statistics:
- Mean = Σx / N (sum of all scores divided by the number of scores)
- Median = middle value when data are ordered from smallest to largest
- Mode = most frequently occurring value
- Range = highest value – lowest value
GCSE CIE 心理学要求计算和解释基础描述统计：
- 平均数 = Σx / N（所有分数之和除以分数个数）
- 中位数 = 数据从小到大排序后的中间值
- 众数 = 出现频率最高的值
- 全距 = 最大值 – 最小值
Mean (M) = ∑x / N ; Range = Xmax − Xmin
A wider range or larger standard deviation indicates greater spread of data. These measures help summarise findings before interpreting the effect of the IV.
较大的全距或标准差表明数据分布更分散。这些指标有助于在解释 IV 效果前概括实验结果。
9. Sampling Principles | 抽样原则定理
A sample must represent the target population to permit generalisation. Three commonly used techniques are:
Random sampling – every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
Opportunity sampling – choosing anyone available and willing.
Volunteer sampling – self-selected individuals respond to an advertisement.
样本必须能代表目标总体以支持概括推论。三种常用技术：随机抽样——每个个体有均等机会被选中；方便抽样——选取有空且愿意的任何人；自愿抽样——个体看到广告后自行选择参加。
The key sampling theorem: a good sample is free from sampling bias and closely matches the population on relevant characteristics.
关键抽样定理：一个好的样本应无抽样偏差，并在相关特征上接近总体。
10. Ethical Guidelines: The Golden Rules | 伦理准则定理
All psychological research with human participants must abide by ethical standards. The BPS code can be summarised as a formula of core rights:
Informed consent + Right to withdraw + Confidentiality + Protection from harm + No deception unless justified + Debriefing.
所有涉及人类被试的心理学研究
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