📚 A-Level CIE Sociology: Key Terms Quick-Memorisation Guide | A-Level CIE 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociological terminology is essential for success in A-Level CIE Sociology. This guide provides clear, concise definitions paired in English and Chinese to support rapid recall and deeper understanding. Each section targets a core area of the syllabus, offering bite-sized explanations that will strengthen your essays and exam responses.
掌握社会学术语是在 A-Level CIE 社会学考试中取得成功的关键。本指南提供清晰、简洁的英中对照定义，帮助你快速记忆并加深理解。每个部分针对考纲的一个核心领域，给出简短的说明，让你在论文和答题中更有底气。
1. Key Sociological Perspectives | 关键社会学视角
Functionalism: A macro structural theory that views society as a system of interconnected institutions working together to maintain stability and consensus. Social order is achieved through shared norms and values. Key thinkers include Durkheim, Parsons, and Merton.
功能主义：一种宏观结构理论，将社会视为由相互关联的制度组成的系统，各部分协同维持稳定与共识。社会秩序通过共享的规范和价值观实现。代表人物有涂尔干、帕森斯和默顿。
Marxism: A conflict theory rooted in the ideas of Karl Marx. It emphasises class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers), with the economic base shaping the ideological superstructure. Social institutions serve to maintain ruling‑class power.
马克思主义：一种植根于马克思思想的冲突理论。它强调资产阶级（生产资料所有者）与无产阶级（工人）之间的阶级斗争，经济基础决定上层建筑。社会制度服务于统治阶级的权力维护。
Feminism: A perspective that focuses on gender inequality and patriarchy. Different strands (liberal, radical, Marxist, intersectional) highlight how society is structured to benefit men and oppress women, calling for the transformation of gendered power relations.
女性主义：一种关注性别不平等和父权制的视角。不同流派（自由派、激进派、马克思主义、交叉性）强调社会结构如何使男性受益并压迫女性，倡导改变性别权力关系。
Interactionism: A micro approach examining small‑scale social interactions and the meanings individuals attach to symbols, language, and everyday behaviour. It argues that social reality is constructed through interaction. Key concept: labelling theory.
互动论：一种研究小范围社会互动以及个体赋予符号、语言和日常行为的意义的微观方法。它认为社会现实是通过互动建构的。核心概念：标签理论。
2. Socialisation and Culture | 社会化与文化
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and behaviours expected in their society. Primary socialisation occurs in the family during early childhood; secondary socialisation happens later through agencies such as school, peer groups, and the media.
社会化：个体学习所在社会期望的规范、价值观和行为的终身过程。初级社会化发生在童年早期的家庭中；次级社会化则通过学校、同伴群体和媒体等机构进行。
Norms: Unwritten rules that define appropriate and inappropriate behaviour in specific situations. They guide daily conduct and are enforced through positive or negative sanctions.
规范：界定在特定情境中适当或不适当行为的不成文规则。它们指导日常行为，并通过正面或负面的制裁来执行。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is desirable, good, and worthwhile. They provide the general guidelines for behaviour and underpin norms. Examples include honesty, equality, and respect for authority.
价值观：关于什么是可取、美好和有价值的深层信念。它们为行为提供一般准则，是规范的基础。例如诚实、平等和尊重权威。
Subculture: A group within a larger culture that holds distinct norms, values, and lifestyle patterns while still sharing some elements of the mainstream culture. Subcultures may develop around music, fashion, or beliefs, and can sometimes resist dominant norms.
亚文化：在一个更大的文化内部，具有独特规范、价值观和生活方式模式的群体，同时仍共享主流文化的一些元素。亚文化可围绕音乐、时尚或信仰发展，有时会抵抗主流规范。
3. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Social stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes, or strata based on unequal access to resources, power, and prestige. It is a structured form of inequality that persists across generations.
社会分层：根据对资源、权力和声望的不平等获取，将个体划分到社会阶级、种姓或阶层的等级安排。它是一种结构化的不平等形式，代代延续。
Social class: A group of people who share a similar economic position in society, often defined by occupation, income, wealth, and education. Traditional Marxist classes are the bourgeoisie and proletariat; contemporary measures often include the Registrar General’s scale or the NRSEC.
社会阶级：社会中具有相似经济地位的一群人，通常根据职业、收入、财富和教育来界定。传统马克思主义的阶级是资产阶级和无产阶级；当代衡量标准常包括注册总署量表或 NRSEC。
Social mobility: The movement of individuals or groups between different social positions. Vertical mobility refers to moving up or down the hierarchy; horizontal mobility involves changes in occupation at the same level. Intragenerational mobility occurs within a person’s lifetime, while intergenerational mobility compares generations.
社会流动：个人或群体在不同社会位置之间的移动。垂直流动指在等级中上升或下降；水平流动指同级别职业的变化。代内流动发生在个人一生中，代际流动则比较不同代人。
Life chances: A concept from Weber referring to the opportunities individuals have to improve their quality of life, including access to healthcare, education, and housing. These chances are heavily influenced by class, gender, and ethnicity.
生活机会：韦伯提出的概念，指个人拥有改善生活质量的机会，包括获得医疗、教育和住房。这些机会深受阶级、性别和族群的影响。
4. Research Methods | 研究方法
Quantitative methods: Approaches that collect numerical data and seek to identify patterns, correlations, or causal relationships. Methods include questionnaires, structured interviews, and official statistics. They emphasise reliability and generalisability.
定量方法：收集数值数据并试图识别模式、相关性或因果关系的研究方法。包括问卷调查、结构性访谈和官方统计。它们强调信度和可推广性。
Qualitative methods: Approaches that gather in‑depth, non‑numerical data to understand meanings, experiences, and social processes. Common methods include participant observation, unstructured interviews, and focus groups. Validity and verstehen are prioritised.
定性方法：收集深度、非数值数据以理解意义、经验和社会过程的方法。常见方法有参与式观察、非结构性访谈和焦点小组。优先考虑效度和移情理解。
Triangulation: The use of two or more research methods or data sources in a single study to cross‑check findings and increase validity. For example, combining questionnaires with in‑depth interviews can provide both breadth and depth.
三角互证：在一项研究中使用两种或多种研究方法或数据来源，以便交叉检验发现并提高效度。例如，将问卷调查与深度访谈结合可以兼顾广度和深度。
Sampling: The process of selecting participants from a target population. Types include random, stratified, quota, and snowball sampling. The choice of sampling technique affects the representativeness of the data and the ability to generalise.
抽样：从目标人群中选取参与者的过程。类型包括随机抽样、分层抽样、配额抽样和滚雪球抽样。抽样技术的选择影响数据的代表性及推广能力。
5. The Family | 家庭
Nuclear family: A family unit consisting of two generations – parents and their dependent children – living in the same household. Functionalists like Parsons see it as ideally suited to industrial societies due to its geographical mobility.
核心家庭：由两代人——父母及其依赖子女——组成、同住一户的家庭单位。功能主义者如帕森斯认为，因其地理流动性，它最适合工业社会。
Extended family: A family structure that includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit, such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles, either living together or in close contact. It can be modified or dispersed, providing emotional and practical support.
扩展家庭：超出核心单元、包含祖辈、姑姨叔伯等亲属的家庭结构，他们或同住，或保持密切联络。可以是修改式或分散式，提供情感和实际支持。
Domestic division of labour: The allocation of household tasks between partners. Feminist research highlights both the instrumental and expressive roles (Parsons) and the persistence of a dual burden or triple shift for women.
家务分工：伴侣之间家庭任务的分配。女性主义研究既指出了工具性角色和表达性角色（帕森斯），也强调了女性仍承受的双重负担或三重轮班。
Divorce rate: The number of divorces per 1,000 married people in a population per year. Changes in legislation, secularisation, rising expectations of marriage, and women’s economic independence have contributed to higher rates in many Western societies.
离婚率：每千名已婚人口中每年的离婚数量。法律变革、世俗化、对婚姻期望的提高以及女性经济独立导致许多西方社会离婚率上升。
6. Education | 教育
Hidden curriculum: The informal lessons, values, and norms conveyed through the school’s structure and routines, such as obedience, punctuality, and acceptance of hierarchy. Functionalists argue it prepares students for the workplace; Marxists see it as reproducing class inequality.
隐性课程：通过学校结构和日常运作传递的非正式课程、价值观和规范，如服从、守时和接受等级。功能主义者认为它为学生进入职场做准备；马克思主义者则视其为阶级不平等的再生产。
Cultural capital: A concept from Bourdieu referring to non‑financial social assets, such as knowledge, manners, and educational qualifications, that promote social mobility. Middle‑class children often possess cultural capital that matches the school’s demands, giving them an advantage.
文化资本：布尔迪厄提出的概念，指知识、礼仪和学历等非经济的社会资产，它可以促进社会流动。中产阶级儿童通常拥有与学校要求匹配的文化资本，从而获得优势。
Labelling: The process by which teachers attach a definition or category to a student (e.g. ‘bright’ or ‘troublemaker’), which can influence self‑fulfilling prophecy and educational achievement. Interactionists study how these labels affect identity and performance.
标签：教师将某种定义或类别赋予学生的过程（如“聪明”或“捣蛋鬼”），这会影响自我实现预言和学业成就。互动论者研究这些标签如何影响认同和表现。
Setting and streaming: Forms of ability grouping. Streaming places students into the same fixed groups for all subjects; setting sorts them by ability for specific subjects. Critics argue these practices can reinforce inequalities and limit opportunities for lower‑placed students.
分轨与分层：能力分组的形式。分轨是将学生固定在所有科目相同的组；分层是按能力为特定科目分班。批评者认为这些做法会加剧不平等，限制低组别学生的机会。
7. Media | 媒体
Mass media: Forms of communication designed to reach large audiences, including television, radio, newspapers, and the internet. Sociologists explore how media content is produced, distributed, and consumed, and its effects on attitudes and behaviour.
大众媒体：旨在覆盖大量受众的传播形式，包括电视、广播、报纸和互联网。社会学家探究媒体内容如何生产、传播和消费，以及其对态度和行为的影响。
Representation: The way media portrays different social groups, events, and issues. It involves selection, construction, and framing. Stereotypical or narrow representations can shape public perceptions and reinforce power inequalities.
再现：媒体描绘不同社会群体、事件和议题的方式。它涉及选择、建构和框架设定。刻板或狭窄的再现能塑造公众认知并强化权力不平等。
Agenda‑setting: The media’s ability to influence which issues are perceived as important by the public. By giving more coverage to certain topics, the media can shape political and social priorities.
议程设置：媒体影响公众认为哪些议题重要的能力。通过给予某些话题更多报道，媒体可以塑造政治和社会优先事项。
Moral panic: A concept developed by Cohen describing an exaggerated societal reaction to a group or behaviour perceived as a threat to social order. The media amplifies deviance, creating public concern and often leading to calls for tougher controls.
道德恐慌：科恩提出的概念，描述社会对被视为威胁的群体或行为的过度反应。媒体放大越轨行为，制造公众焦虑，常常导致要求强化管控。
8. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance: Behaviour that violates social norms and expectations, but is not necessarily illegal. What counts as deviant varies across cultures and historical periods. Social control mechanisms sanction deviant behaviour.
越轨：违反社会规范和期待的行为，但不一定违法。何谓越轨因文化和历史时期而异。社会控制机制会制裁越轨行为。
Anomie: A condition of normlessness described by Durkheim, where rapid social change or lack of clear guidelines leads to a breakdown of social regulation, increasing the likelihood of deviance. Merton later adapted anomie to explain crime as a strain between goals and means.
失范：涂尔干描述的规范缺失状态，快速社会变迁或缺乏明确指引导致社会调节崩溃，增加越轨可能性。默顿后来将失范发展为解释目标与手段脱节导致犯罪的压力理论。
Labelling theory: An interactionist perspective arguing that deviance is not inherent in an act but results from the application of labels by those with power. Once labelled, individuals may internalise this as a master status, leading to a self‑fulfilling prophecy and secondary deviance.
标签理论：一种互动论视角，认为越轨并非行为固有，而是掌权者贴标签的结果。一旦被贴上标签，个体可能将其内化为主导身份，导致自我实现预言和继发越轨。
White‑collar crime: Crimes committed by individuals in professional or business settings, often involving fraud, embezzlement, or insider trading. Sutherland highlighted that these crimes are typically less harshly punished than street crimes despite their significant social harm.
白领犯罪：在专业或商业环境中实施的犯罪，常涉及欺诈、挪用或内幕交易。萨瑟兰指出，尽管社会危害巨大，这类犯罪通常比街头犯罪惩罚更轻。
9. Gender | 性别
Sex: The biological and anatomical differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs. It is often understood as a binary category, though intersex variations exist.
生理性别：男女之间生物和解剖学上的差异，包括染色体、激素和生殖器官。通常被理解为二元类别，但存在间性变异。
Gender: The socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. Gender is learned through socialisation and can vary across cultures and over time.
社会性别：特定社会认为适合男性和女性的社会建构的角色、行为、活动和属性。性别通过社会化习得，并可能随文化和时间变化。
Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. Feminists argue that patriarchy is embedded in family, work, and the state.
父权制：一种男性掌握主要权力并主导政治领导、道德权威、社会特权和财产控制的社会制度。女性主义者认为父权制深嵌于家庭、工作和国家之中。
Glass ceiling: An invisible barrier that prevents women and other marginalised groups from rising to top positions in organisations, despite their qualifications and achievements. It reflects persistent gender discrimination in the workplace.
玻璃天花板：一种无形的障碍，阻止女性及其他边缘群体虽具备资历和成就却无法晋升到组织高位。它反映了职场中持续存在的性别歧视。
10. Race and Ethnicity | 种族与族群
Race: A socially constructed category used to classify people based on perceived physical differences, such as skin colour. Although race lacks biological validity, it remains a powerful source of identity and discrimination.
种族：一种社会建构的类别，用以根据肤色等感知到的身体差异对人进行分类。尽管种族在生物学上缺乏依据，它仍是身份认同和歧视的重要来源。
Ethnicity: A shared cultural identity based on common ancestry, language, history, religion, or national origin. Unlike race, ethnicity emphasises cultural traits and can be more fluid as individuals negotiate their identities.
族群：基于共同血统、语言、历史、宗教或民族出身而形成的共享文化认同。与种族不同，族群强调文化特质，且随着个体协商身份而更具流动性。
Institutional racism: A form of racism embedded in the policies and practices of social institutions, which results in the systematic disadvantage of minority ethnic groups. It does not require individual intent – examples include bias in stop‑and‑search or school exclusions.
制度性种族主义：嵌入社会机构政策和实践中的一种种族主义形式，导致少数族群遭受系统性不利。它不要求个人意图——例如截查搜查或学校开除中的偏见。
White privilege: Unearned advantages experienced by white people in societies where whiteness is normalised, including greater access to opportunities and freedom from racial bias in everyday interactions.
白人特权：在白人被视为常态的社会中，白人享有的不劳而获的优势，包括更多的机会获取和在日常互动中免受种族偏见。
11. Globalisation and Social Change | 全球化与社会变迁
Globalisation: The increasing interconnectedness of societies across the world, driven by advances in technology, trade, and communication. It involves the flow of goods, capital, information, and people, and deeply affects culture, politics, and identity.
全球化：由技术、贸易和通讯进步推动的世界各地社会日益相互关联。它涉及货物、资本、信息和人员的流动，深刻影响文化、政治和身份认同。
Cultural homogenisation: The tendency for global culture to become increasingly uniform, often associated with the spread of Western (or American) brands, media, and values. Critics argue it leads to the erosion of local traditions and diversity.
文化同质化：全球文化趋向统一的现象，常与西方（或美国）品牌、媒体和价值观的传播有关。批评者认为它导致本地传统和多样性的消解。
Glocalisation: A term combining ‘globalisation’ and ‘localisation’ to describe how global products or ideas are adapted to fit local cultures. For example, McDonald’s menus are modified to suit local tastes, creating hybrid cultural forms.
全球本土化：结合“全球化”和“本土化”的术语，描述全球产品或理念如何适应当地文化。例如麦当劳菜单根据本地口味调整，创造出混合文化形式。
Cultural imperialism: The imposition of one culture’s values, practices, or products onto another society, often through economic or media dominance. Critics see global media conglomerates as spreading dominant ideologies and marginalising local voices.
文化帝国主义：通过经济或媒体主导，将一个文化的价值观、习俗或产品强加于另一社会。批评者认为全球媒体集团传播主导意识形态，边缘化本地声音。
12. Key Thinkers and Concepts | 关键思想家与概念
Durkheim: Established sociology as a discipline, focusing on social facts, collective conscience, and the functions of institutions. His studies on suicide demonstrated how social integration and regulation shape individual behaviour.
涂尔干：将社会学确立为一门学科，关注社会事实、集体意识和制度功能。他对自杀的研究展示了社会整合与调节如何塑造个体行为。
Marx: Analysed capitalism as a system of exploitation characterised by alienation, class conflict, and eventual revolutionary change. The base‑superstructure model links the economic foundation to all other social institutions.
马克思：将资本主义分析为一种剥削体系，特征包括异化、阶级冲突和最终革命变革。经济基础—上层建筑模型将经济基础与所有其他社会制度联系起来。
Weber: Argued against economic determinism, introducing verstehen (interpretive understanding), ideal types, and the role of religion and bureaucracy. His work on class, status, and party shows the multidimensional nature of stratification.
韦伯：反对经济决定论，引入了移情理解、理想类型以及宗教与官僚制的作用。他对阶级、地位和政党的研究展示了分层的多维度性质。
Foucault: Examined the relationship between power and knowledge, showing how discourses shape what can be known and done. Concepts like panopticism, surveillance, and biopower challenge the idea that power is only repressive.
福柯：考察权力与知识的关系，展示话语如何塑造可知与可行之事。全景敞视主义、监视和生命权力等概念挑战了权力仅仅是压制性的观念。
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