📚 AS CCEA Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Memory Guide | AS CCEA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical terminology is the foundation of success in AS CCEA Philosophy. This guide presents key terms grouped by topic, with memory aids, etymology, and clear contrasts to help you recall and apply them accurately in essays and exams. Each English explanation is immediately followed by its Chinese equivalent, reinforcing bilingual understanding.
掌握哲学术语是 AS CCEA 哲学考试成功的基础。本指南按照主题分组关键词汇，提供记忆辅助、词源解析和明确对比，帮助你精准记忆并在论文与考试中灵活运用。每个英文解释后紧跟对应的中文解释，强化双语理解。
1. Methodology & Core Concepts | 方法论与核心概念速记
A Priori – knowledge gained independently of sense experience, through reason alone. Memory tip: ‘A’ can mean ‘away from’ the senses. Latin: ‘from the earlier’. Think of it as ‘prior’ knowledge.
先验的 – 不依赖于感官经验、仅通过理性获得的知识。记忆窍门：’先’即先于经验，可联想“先天”的理性真理。
A Posteriori – knowledge that depends on sense experience or empirical evidence. Memory tip: ‘Post’ means ‘after’ – after experience. Knowledge post observation.
后验的 – 依赖于感官经验或实证证据的知识。记忆窍门：’后’指经验之后，观察之后才获得的知识。
Analytic Statement – a proposition that is true by definition, where the predicate is contained in the subject (e.g. ‘All bachelors are unmarried’). Memory tip: ‘Analytic’ sounds like ‘analysis’ – analysing the subject already reveals the truth.
分析命题 – 仅凭定义即为真的陈述，谓词包含在主词之中（如“所有单身汉都未婚”）。记忆窍门：’分析’即分析主词就可知真值。
Synthetic Statement – a proposition where the predicate adds new information to the subject, requiring experience to verify (e.g. ‘The cat is on the mat’). Memory tip: ‘Synthetic’ like ‘synthesis’ – combining concepts from experience.
综合命题 – 谓词给主词添加新信息的陈述，需要经验来验证（如“猫在垫子上”）。记忆窍门：’综合’即综合经验概念。
2. Reason & Experience | 理性与经验
Rationalism – the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, with innate ideas existing independently of experience. Key thinkers: Plato, Descartes. Memory tip: ‘Ratio’ – reason. Rationalists trust the mind’s built-in ‘ratio’ or order.
理性主义 – 认为理性是知识的主要来源，存在与经验无关的天赋观念。代表人物：柏拉图、笛卡尔。记忆窍门：’理’性，重视头脑固有的条理。
Empiricism – the view that all knowledge originates in sense experience, and the mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate). Key thinkers: Locke, Hume. Memory tip: ‘Empirical’ – evidence. Think ’empty’ mind filled by experience.
经验主义 – 认为一切知识源于感官经验，心灵初生时是一块“白板”。代表人物：洛克、休谟。记忆窍门：’经验’，联想“空白的”心灵被经验填满。
Innate Ideas – concepts that are inborn, not derived from experience (e.g. Descartes’ idea of God). Memory tip: ‘Innate’ sounds like ‘in-born’ or ‘innate’ – built in at birth.
天赋观念 – 与生俱来、非源于经验的观念（如笛卡尔的上帝观念）。记忆窍门：’天赋’即天生的、植入的。
Tabula Rasa – Latin for ‘blank slate’; the empiricist claim that the mind has no built-in mental content. Memory tip: Imagine a clean tablet (tabula) ready to be written on by the senses.
白板 – 拉丁语原意“空白刻写板”；经验主义主张心灵没有内在的心理内容。记忆窍门：想象一块光滑的蜡板，由感官书写。
3. Freedom & Determinism | 自由与决定论
Hard Determinism – the thesis that all events, including human actions, are causally determined by prior states, so free will is an illusion. Memory tip: ‘Hard’ – no flexibility. Think of a rigid chain of causes.
强决定论 – 所有事件（包括人类行为）都由先前状态因果决定的命题，因此自由意志是幻觉。记忆窍门：’强’硬无情，因果链条不可弯折。
Libertarianism (Free Will) – the view that humans have free will, and some actions are not determined by prior causes. Memory tip: ‘Liberty’ – freedom. The agent is truly free, like an uncaused cause.
自由意志论 – 认为人类拥有自由意志，某些行为不受先前原因决定。记忆窍门：’自由’，行为者如第一因般自主。
Compatibilism (Soft Determinism) – the view that free will and determinism are compatible; free actions are those caused by one’s own desires, even if determined. Memory tip: ‘Compatible’ – they can co-exist. A ‘soft’ reconciliation.
相容论（弱决定论） – 认为自由意志与决定论可以相容；自由行为是由自身欲望引起的，即使是被决定的。记忆窍门：’相容’共存，用“柔软”的方式调和矛盾。
4. Moral Philosophy: Key Theories | 道德哲学核心理论速记
Deontology – duty-based ethics, where actions are morally right if they conform to certain rules or duties, regardless of consequences (Kant). Memory tip: ‘Deon’ (Greek) = duty. Think ‘do the right thing, de(on)tologically!’
义务论 – 基于义务的伦理学，行为是否符合道德取决于是否遵守规则或义务，不论后果（康德）。记忆窍门：’义务’，应做的事。
Utilitarianism – consequentialist theory where the right action is that which maximises overall happiness or utility (Bentham, Mill). Memory tip: ‘Utility’ – usefulness; ‘Util-‘ like ‘utilisation’ for the greatest happiness.
功利主义 – 后果论理论，正确行为是能最大化总体幸福或功利的行为（边沁、密尔）。记忆窍门：’功利’，追求最大好处。
Virtue Ethics – agent-centred ethics focusing on character and virtues rather than rules or consequences (Aristotle). Memory tip: ‘Virtue’ – moral excellence; think of a virtuous person acting from good character.
德性伦理学 – 以行为者为中心的伦理学，强调品格和德性，而非规则或后果（亚里士多德）。记忆窍门：’德性’即美德，有德之人自然行善。
Categorical Imperative – Kant’s unconditional moral law: act only according to that maxim which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law. Memory tip: ‘Categorical’ – absolute, no exceptions. It is an ‘imperative’ (command).
定言命令 – 康德的无条件道德律：只依照你能够同时愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。记忆窍门：’定言’即绝对命令，不容例外。
5. The Nature of God: Attributes | 上帝属性术语速记
Omnipotence – the attribute of being all-powerful. Memory tip: ‘Omni-‘ (Latin) = all; ‘potens’ = powerful. Can God create a stone so heavy that even He cannot lift it? Paradoxes help memory.
全能 – 全能的属性。记忆窍门：’全’表示一切，’能’为力量。石头悖论有助于记忆此概念。
Omniscience – the attribute of being all-knowing. Memory tip: ‘Sci-‘ (as in science) = knowledge. All-knowledge.
全知 – 全知的属性。记忆窍门：’知’即知识，全知即无所不知。
Omnibenevolence – the attribute of being all-good or morally perfect. Memory tip: ‘Bene-‘ (as in benefit) = good. All-goodness.
全善 – 至善或道德完美的属性。记忆窍门：’善’即好，全善即全然仁慈。
Eternal / Everlasting – God as timeless (eternal, outside time) or as existing at all times (everlasting, within time). Memory tip: ‘Eternal’ – never-ending, beyond time; ‘Everlasting’ – lasts forever through time.
永恒 / 永存 – 上帝超越时间（永恒）或存在于所有时间之中（永存）。记忆窍门：’永恒’无时间，’永存’贯穿时间。
6. Arguments for the Existence of God | 上帝存在论证术语速记
Ontological Argument – a priori argument that derives God’s existence from the very concept of God (Anselm: God is ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’). Memory tip: ‘Onto-‘ = being; ‘logical’ – a logical proof using the idea of a perfect being.
本体论论证 – 先验论证，从上帝的概念本身推导出上帝的存在（安瑟伦：上帝是“无法设想有比之更伟大者”）。记忆窍门：’本体’即存在，从概念逻辑推导。
Cosmological Argument – a posteriori argument that traces the universe back to a First Cause or Necessary Being (Aquinas’ Five Ways). Memory tip: ‘Cosmos’ = universe. The argument from the cosmos to its cause.
宇宙论论证 – 后验论证，追溯到宇宙的第一因或必然存在者（阿奎那五路）。记忆窍门：’宇宙’论，从宇宙开始溯源。
Teleological (Design) Argument – a posteriori argument from apparent design and purpose in the world to a Designer (Paley’s watchmaker). Memory tip: ‘Telos’ (Greek) = end, purpose. The purpose-filled world points to a designer.
目的论（设计）论证 – 后验论证，从世界中明显的设计与目的推到一位设计者（佩利的钟表匠）。记忆窍门：’目的’，世间目的性指向设计者。
Necessary Being – a being that depends on nothing else for its existence, the existence of which is non-contingent. Memory tip: ‘Necessary’ – must exist; cannot not exist. Contrast with contingent beings.
必然存在者 – 不依赖任何其他事物而存在、其存在并非偶然的存在者。记忆窍门：’必然’存在，不可或缺。与偶然存在者对比。
7. Religious Experience | 宗教经验术语速记
Numinous Experience – Otto’s term for the experience of a mysterious, awe-inspiring presence of the divine, characterised by ‘mysterium tremendum et fascinans’. Memory tip: ‘Numinous’ sounds like ‘numinous’ – numinous, overwhelming. Think ‘tremendous’ + ‘fascinating’.
努秘体验 – 奥托的术语，指对神圣临在的神秘、令人敬畏的体验，特征为“令人战栗又令人着迷的神秘”。记忆窍门：’努秘’音似神秘，既颤栗又着迷。
Mystical Experience – a direct, non-sensory union with the divine or ultimate reality, often ineffable and noetic. Memory tip: ‘Mystical’ relates to mystery – an ineffable union beyond words.
神秘体验 – 与神圣或终极实在直接、非感官的合一，通常不可言说且带有洞见。记忆窍门：’神秘’合一，无法言喻。
Principle of Credulity (Swinburne) – we should believe that things are as they seem to be, unless we have evidence to the contrary; applied to religious experience. Memory tip: ‘Credulity’ = trust. ‘If it seems real, take it as real’ – unless proven otherwise.
轻信原则（斯温伯恩）– 我们应当相信事物如其所呈现的那样，除非我们有相反证据；应用于宗教经验。记忆窍门：’轻信’即信任表象，以真实对待。
Principle of Testimony – in the absence of counter-evidence, we should believe the reports of others. Memory tip: Testimony = witness. Believe witnesses until proven unreliable.
见证原则 – 在没有反证的情况下，我们应当相信他人的报告。记忆窍门：相信见证，除非证伪。
8. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题术语速记
Natural Evil – suffering caused by natural events like earthquakes, disease, without human agency. Memory tip: ‘Natural’ – nature causes it, not humans.
自然恶 – 由自然灾害、疾病等非人为因素造成的苦难。记忆窍门：’自然’引起的恶。
Moral Evil – suffering caused by human free choices (murder, theft, cruelty). Memory tip: ‘Moral’ – choices by moral agents. Humans doing evil.
道德恶 – 由人类自由选择造成的苦难（谋杀、偷窃、残暴）。记忆窍门：’道德’行为者选择的恶。
Theodicy – a defence of God’s justice and goodness in light of evil (Leibniz). Memory tip: ‘Theo-‘ = God; ‘dike’ = justice. God’s justification. Think ‘God’s justice’.
神正论 – 在恶存在的情况下为上帝的正义和良善辩护（莱布尼茨）。记忆窍门：’神’的正义。
Free Will Defence – the argument that God gave humans free will, and moral evil results from its misuse, but free will is a greater good (Plantinga). Memory tip: Evil explained by free will – freedom is worth the cost.
自由意志辩护 – 论证上帝赋予人自由意志，道德恶是其误用的结果，但自由意志是更大的善（普兰丁格）。记忆窍门：自由意志解释恶，自由的价值值得付出代价。
Soul-Making Theodicy (Hick) – evil and suffering are necessary for spiritual growth and developing virtues. Memory tip: ‘Soul-making’ – like a soul gym; difficulties shape character.
灵魂塑造神正论（希克）– 恶与苦难对灵性成长和德性发展是必要的。记忆窍门：’灵魂塑造’，如灵魂的健身房；困难塑造品格。
9. Life After Death & Personal Identity | 来世与人格同一性术语速记
Dualism – the view that mind and body are distinct substances; often supports the possibility of life after death (Plato, Descartes). Memory tip: ‘Dual’ – two. Soul and body separate, soul can survive.
二元论 – 认为心灵与身体是不同实体的观点；常支持死后生命的可能性。记忆窍门：’二元’，灵魂与身体可分离。
Materialism (Physicalism) – the view that only physical matter exists, so consciousness is a brain function; death is the end. Memory tip: ‘Material’ – matter only. No ghost in the machine.
唯物主义（物理主义） – 认为只有物理物质存在，意识是大脑功能；死亡即终结。记忆窍门：’唯物’，唯有物质。
Resurrection – the bodily raising from death to a new life, often in a transformed body (Christianity). Memory tip: ‘Re-‘ + ‘surrection’ (rising). A new embodied life.
复活 – 从死亡中肉体复活，进入新的生命，通常以转变后的身体（基督教）。记忆窍门：’复’活，身体再生。
Reincarnation – the rebirth of the soul into a new body after death, often in cycles (Hinduism, Buddhism). Memory tip: ‘Re-‘ + ‘incarnation’ (in flesh). A new flesh-body each life.
轮回 – 死后灵魂在新的身体中重生，通常循环不止（印度教、佛教）。记忆窍门：’轮’转，灵魂再入肉身。
Personal Identity – what makes a person the same person over time; criteria include memory continuity (Locke), bodily continuity, or psychological connectedness. Memory tip: ‘Identity’ – sameness. What keeps you ‘you’ after death?
人格同一性 – 是什么使一个人在不同时间保持为同一个人；标准包括记忆连续性（洛克）、身体连续性或心理关联。记忆窍门：’同一性’，死后你凭什么还是你？
10. Meta-Ethics & Language | 元伦理学与语言术语速记
Cognitivism – the view that moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false (e.g. ‘Murder is wrong’ is fact-stating). Memory tip: ‘Cognit-‘ as in cognition – moral judgements are knowable facts.
认知主义 – 认为道德陈述表达可真可假的信念。记忆窍门：’认知’，道德判断是可知事实。
Non-Cognitivism – the view that moral statements do not express facts but rather emotions, prescriptions, or attitudes (Ayer’s emotivism: ‘Boo/hooray theory’). Memory tip: ‘Non-cognitive’ – no fact, just feeling.
非认知主义 – 认为道德陈述不表达事实，而是表达情感、规定或态度（艾耶尔的情感主义：“嘘/好哇理论”）。记忆窍门：’非认知’，无事实，只表情感。
Naturalistic Fallacy (Moore) – the alleged mistake of defining ‘good’ in terms of natural properties like pleasure, as ‘good’ is a simple, indefinable, non-natural property. Memory tip: ‘Fallacy’ – error. Reducing ‘good’ to nature is a mistake; think of the open question argument.
自然主义谬误（摩尔）– 将“善”定义为自然属性（如快乐）的所谓错误，因为“善”是单纯、不可定义的非自然属性。记忆窍门：’谬误’，把善还原为自然性质是个错误。
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