📚 AS WJEC Philosophy: Key Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Guide | AS WJEC 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
This guide provides a systematic overview of the essential terminology needed for the AS WJEC Philosophy course. Each term is defined clearly, with matched English and Chinese explanations, to help you build a solid conceptual foundation for your exam essays and discussions.
本指南系统梳理了 AS WJEC 哲学课程所必需的核心术语。每个术语都提供了清晰的定义，并配有中英对照解释，帮助你在考试论文和课堂讨论中建立牢固的概念基础。
1. Knowledge and Justified True Belief | 知识与证成真信念
Knowledge is traditionally defined as justified true belief (JTB). According to this analysis, a person S knows that a proposition p is true if and only if (i) p is true, (ii) S believes that p, and (iii) S is justified in believing that p.
知识在传统上被定义为得到证成的真信念（JTB）。根据这一分析，一个人 S 知道命题 p 为真，当且仅当：（i）p 为真，（ii）S 相信 p，并且（iii）S 有理由相信 p。
Truth is a condition that requires p to correspond to reality; belief is the psychological state of holding p to be true. Justification is the evidence or reasoning that supports the belief, distinguishing knowledge from lucky guesswork.
真理是要求 p 符合现实的条件；信念是认为 p 为真的心理状态。证成则是支持该信念的证据或推理，它将知识与侥幸猜对区分开来。
Gettier cases challenge the JTB definition by showing that a person can have a justified true belief yet still lack knowledge, for example when the justification relies on a false assumption that happens to lead to a true conclusion.
盖梯尔案例挑战了 JTB 定义，表明一个人可能拥有得到证成的真信念但仍缺乏知识，比如当证成依赖于一个错误的假设，而这个假设碰巧得出了一个真实的结论。
2. A Priori and A Posteriori | 先验与后验
An a priori proposition is one that can be known independently of sensory experience, such as ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. Knowledge of it relies solely on reasoning or grasping the meanings of the terms involved.
先验命题是指可以不依赖于感官经验而获知的命题，例如“所有单身汉都未婚”。关于它的知识仅依赖于推理或对相关术语含义的把握。
An a posteriori proposition is known through sensory experience or empirical investigation. For instance, ‘It is raining outside’ can only be verified by looking out of the window or going outdoors.
后验命题是通过感官经验或实证研究而获知的命题。例如，“外面正在下雨”只能通过看向窗外或走到户外来证实。
Rationalists argue that some substantive knowledge, such as in mathematics and metaphysics, is a priori, while empiricists maintain that all knowledge of the world ultimately derives from a posteriori experience.
理性主义者主张，某些实质性的知识（如数学和形而上学）是先验的，而经验主义者则认为，所有关于世界的知识最终都来源于后验经验。
3. Analytic and Synthetic Statements | 分析陈述与综合陈述
An analytic statement is true solely in virtue of the meanings of the words it contains and its logical structure; denying it leads to a contradiction. The classic example is ‘A triangle has three sides’.
分析陈述仅凭其所包含词语的意义和逻辑结构便为真；否定它会导致矛盾。经典例子是“三角形有三条边”。
A synthetic statement adds information to the subject concept and its truth depends on how the world is. ‘The cat is on the mat’ is synthetic because it asserts something about the cat that could be otherwise.
综合陈述为主词概念添加了信息，其真假取决于世界的事实情况。“猫在垫子上”是综合的，因为它断言了关于猫的某种可能并非如此的事态。
Philosophers debate whether there are synthetic a priori truths, such as Kant’s claim that ‘Every event has a cause’ is not analytic but is known a priori through the structure of human understanding.
哲学家们争论是否存在先天综合真理，例如康德声称“每个事件都有原因”并非分析命题，而是通过人类知性的结构而先验获知。
4. Deduction and Induction | 演绎与归纳
Deduction is a form of reasoning where the conclusion is necessarily true if the premises are true. A valid deductive argument guarantees that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false; it is sound when the premises are actually true.
演绎是一种推理形式，如果前提为真，则结论必然为真。一个有效的演绎论证保证了不可能出现前提真而结论假的情况；当所有前提实际上都为真时，该论证就是可靠的。
Induction involves drawing a probable conclusion from a set of empirical observations or premises. Even if the premises are true, the conclusion is not guaranteed – it only becomes more likely. Scientific generalisations are typically inductive.
归纳涉及从一组经验观察或前提中得出一个可能的结论。即使前提为真，结论也不被保证——它只是变得更有可能。科学概括通常是归纳性的。
Hume’s problem of induction questions how we can rationally justify our trust in induction: we cannot demonstrate it deductively, and using induction to justify induction is circular. Yet we rely on it daily.
休谟的归纳问题质疑我们如何能理性地证成对归纳的信赖：我们无法演绎地证明它，而用归纳去证成归纳是循环论证。然而我们每天都在依赖它。
5. Perception and Reality | 知觉与实在
Direct realism claims that we directly perceive physical objects and their properties, independent of any mental intermediary. When I see a table, I am directly aware of the table itself as it exists in the external world.
直接实在论声称，我们直接感知物理对象及其属性，无需任何心理中介。当我看到一张桌子时，我直接意识到的是存在于外部世界的那张桌子本身。
Indirect realism, or representationalism, holds that we perceive physical objects indirectly via sense-data (mental representations). What we are immediately aware of are these sense-data, not the objects themselves.
间接实在论，或称表象论，认为我们通过感觉材料（心理表征）间接地感知物理对象。我们直接意识到的是这些感觉材料，而非对象本身。
Idealism goes further, denying that there are mind-independent physical objects at all. Berkeley’s subjective idealism asserts that to be is to be perceived, so material objects only exist as collections of ideas in minds.
唯心主义则更进一步，否认存在独立于心灵的物理对象。贝克莱的主观唯心主义断言，存在即被感知，因此物质对象只是心灵中观念的集合。
6. Scepticism and the Limits of Knowledge | 怀疑论与知识的限制
Philosophical scepticism systematically challenges the possibility of knowledge. Global scepticism argues that we cannot know anything at all, typically because we cannot rule out radical scenarios such as being a brain in a vat.
哲学怀疑论系统地挑战知识的可能性。全球怀疑论主张我们根本不能知道任何事，通常是因为我们无法排除极端情境，例如我们可能是一个缸中之脑。
Local scepticism targets a specific domain of knowledge, such as knowledge of the external world, other minds, or the past. It does not deny all knowledge, but insists that certain areas are beyond our reach.
局部怀疑论则针对某一特定领域的知识，例如关于外部世界、他心或过去的知识。它并不否定一切知识，但坚持某些领域超出了我们的认知能力。
Descartes used the method of doubt to arrive at the indubitable foundation ‘I think, therefore I am’. He then attempted to overcome scepticism by proving the existence of a non-deceiving God and the reliability of clear and distinct ideas.
笛卡尔运用怀疑方法得出了不可动摇的基础“我思故我在”。随后他试图通过证明不欺骗人的上帝存在以及清楚明晰观念的可靠性来克服怀疑论。
7. Ethical Theories: Utilitarianism and Deontology | 伦理理论：功利主义与义务论
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory stating that the right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Act utilitarianism applies the utility principle to each specific action directly.
功利主义是一种后果论理论，认为正确的行为就是为最大多数人带来最大幸福的行为。行为功利主义将功利原则直接应用于每个具体行为。
Rule utilitarianism instead proposes that we should follow general rules that, if universally adopted, would generate the most happiness overall. This avoids some counterintuitive results of act utilitarianism.
规则功利主义则提出，我们应该遵循那些如果普遍被采纳就会产生最大整体幸福的一般规则。这避免了行为功利主义的一些反直觉结果。
Deontology, closely associated with Kant, holds that the morality of an action is determined by duty and universal moral rules, not by consequences. The categorical imperative commands us to act only according to maxims that can be willed as universal laws.
与康德密切相关的义务论认为，行为的道德性取决于义务和普遍的道德法则，而非后果。绝对命令要求我们只按照能够同时意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。
8. Moral Motivation and Situation Ethics | 道德动机与情境伦理学
Moral motivation concerns what ultimately moves a person to act morally. Kant argues that true moral worth comes from acting out of duty for the sake of the moral law itself, not from inclination or expected outcomes.
道德动机关注的是究竟是什么最终驱使一个人做出道德行为。康德认为，真正的道德价值源于为道德法则本身而履行义务，而不是出于爱好或期待的结果。
Situation ethics, proposed by Joseph Fletcher, rejects rigid legalistic rules. It holds that agape (selfless, unconditional love) is the only absolute norm, and that the rightness of an action depends entirely on whether it serves love in a given situation.
约瑟夫·弗莱彻提出的情境伦理学拒斥僵化的律法主义规则。它认为圣爱（无私、无条件的爱）是唯一绝对的规范，一个行为的对错完全取决于在特定情境中它是否服务于爱。
Some critics argue that situation ethics is too subjective and lacks clear guidance, while proponents claim it respects the complexity of real moral life better than absolutist systems.
有批评者认为情境伦理学过于主观且缺乏明确指引，而支持者则声称它比绝对主义体系更尊重现实道德生活的复杂性。
9. Arguments for the Existence of God | 上帝存在的论证
The teleological argument (design argument) reasons from apparent order and purpose in the universe to a designer. Paley’s watch analogy suggests that the complexity of nature, like a watch, implies an intelligent creator.
目的论论证（设计论证）从宇宙中明显的秩序与目的推论出一位设计者。佩利的钟表类比表明，自然的复杂性正如钟表一样，暗示着一位智慧创造者。
The cosmological argument seeks to establish God as the ultimate cause or necessary being. Aquinas’s first three ways argue from motion, causation, and contingency to conclude that there must be a first unmoved mover, first uncaused cause, and a necessary being.
宇宙论论证试图确立上帝为最终原因或必然存在。阿奎那的前三个证明从运动、因果和偶然性出发，推论出必有一个第一不动的推动者、第一因和必然存在。
The ontological argument proposed by Anselm defines God as ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ and argues that such a being must exist in reality, because existing in reality is greater than existing only in the understanding.
安瑟尔谟提出的本体论论证将上帝定义为“不能设想有比之更伟大的东西”，并论证说这样一位存在者必然实际存在，因为实际存在比仅仅存在于理智中更伟大。
10. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
The logical problem of evil argues that the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God is logically incompatible with the existence of evil. If God has the power and the will to eliminate evil, evil would not exist; yet it does.
恶的逻辑问题论证说，一个全能、全善的上帝的存在与恶的存在在逻辑上不相容。如果上帝有能力且有意愿消除恶，那么恶就不会存在；然而恶确实存在。
The evidential problem of evil accepts that God’s existence and evil are not strictly contradictory, but claims that the amount and distribution of apparently pointless suffering makes God’s existence highly improbable.
恶的证据问题承认上帝存在与恶在严格意义上并无矛盾，但认为大量且分布广泛的、看似毫无意义的苦难使得上帝的存在极不可能。
Theodicies attempt to reconcile God and evil. Augustine’s free will defence suggests that evil results from the misuse of free will, while Irenaean theodicies see suffering as a necessary instrument for soul-making and spiritual growth.
神正论试图调和上帝与恶。奥古斯丁的自由意志辩护提出，恶源于自由意志的滥用；而爱任纽式的神正论则把苦难视为灵魂塑造与精神成长所必需的工具。
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