📚 KS3 CAIE Philosophy: Vocabulary and Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | KS3 CAIE 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to this essential quick memorisation guide for KS3 CAIE Philosophy. Building a strong vocabulary is the first step to thinking clearly about the big questions. This article introduces key terms across the main branches of philosophy, from metaphysics to logic, with concise definitions and paired Chinese translations. Use these sections to test yourself, create flashcards, and deepen your understanding of philosophical reasoning.
欢迎阅读这份 KS3 CAIE 哲学必备词汇速记指南。建立扎实的词汇库是清晰思考大问题的第一步。本文介绍了形而上学、逻辑学等主要哲学分支中的关键术语，并提供简明定义与对应的中文翻译。你可以利用这些小节自我测验、制作闪卡，并加深对哲学推理的理解。
1. Metaphysics: Reality and Existence | 形而上学：实在与存在
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that investigates the fundamental nature of reality. It asks what exists, what it means to be, and whether the world is composed of one or many substances. Key terms in this area often appear in discussions about mind, matter, and free will.
形而上学是哲学中探索实在根本性质的分支。它追问什么东西存在，存在意味着什么，以及世界是由一种还是多种实体构成的。这一领域的关键术语经常出现在关于心灵、物质和自由意志的讨论中。
Ontology: The study of being and existence; the part of metaphysics that classifies entities and their relations.
本体论： 研究存在与实有的学问；是形而上学中分类实体及其关系的部分。
Substance: What a thing is made of in its most fundamental sense; that which exists independently and bears properties.
实体： 事物最根本的构成；独立存在并承载属性的东西。
Dualism: The view that reality consists of two fundamentally distinct substances, typically mind and matter.
二元论： 主张实在由两种根本不同的实体构成的观点，通常指心灵和物质。
Materialism: The theory that only physical matter exists and everything, including mental states, can be explained in physical terms.
唯物主义： 认为只有物理物质存在，包括心理状态在内的一切都可以用物理术语来解释的理论。
Free Will: The capacity of agents to make choices that are not determined by prior causes. Contrasts with determinism.
自由意志： 能动者做出不被先前原因所决定的抉择的能力。与决定论相对。
2. Epistemology: Knowledge and Belief | 认识论：知识与信念
Epistemology examines the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge. It deals with questions such as: What is knowledge? How do we acquire it? Can we be certain of anything? Familiarity with epistemological vocabulary helps you evaluate arguments and evidence in any subject.
认识论考查知识的性质、来源和限度。它处理诸如什么是知识？我们如何获得知识？我们能对任何事物确定无疑吗？等问题。熟悉认识论词汇有助于你在任何学科中评价论证和证据。
Knowledge: Traditionally defined as justified true belief; to know something, you must believe it, it must be true, and you must have adequate justification.
知识： 传统上定义为被辩护的真信念；要知道某事，你必须相信它，它必须为真，而且你必须有充足的辩护。
Empiricism: The view that all knowledge ultimately comes from sensory experience.
经验论： 认为所有知识最终都来自感官经验的观点。
Rationalism: The view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and some concepts are innate rather than derived from experience.
唯理论： 认为理性是知识的主要来源，某些概念是天生的而非来自经验的观点。
Scepticism: The attitude of doubting knowledge claims; can be global (doubting everything) or local (doubting a specific area).
怀疑论： 对知识主张表示怀疑的态度；可以是全面的（怀疑一切）或局部的（怀疑某一特定领域）。
A priori: Knowledge that is independent of experience, such as mathematical truths (2+2=4).
先天知识： 独立于经验的知识，例如数学真理（2+2=4）。
A posteriori: Knowledge that depends on experience or empirical evidence, such as ‘the sky is blue’.
后天知识： 依赖于经验或实验证据的知识，例如“天空是蓝色的”。
3. Ethics: Right and Wrong | 伦理学：对与错
Ethics investigates moral principles, values, and what we ought to do. Understanding ethical theories is crucial for evaluating actions, developing arguments about justice, and discussing dilemmas in daily life. The terms below form the backbone of many ethical debates.
伦理学研究道德原则、价值以及我们应该做什么。理解伦理学理论对于评价行为、展开关于正义的论证以及讨论日常困境至关重要。以下术语构成了许多伦理辩论的基础。
Consequentialism: The ethical theory that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends solely on its outcomes or consequences.
效果论： 一种伦理理论，认为一个行为的对错完全取决于其结果或后果。
Deontology: The view that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their consequences; duty-based ethics.
义务论： 认为某些行为本身就是对或错的，无论其后果如何；基于义务的伦理学。
Virtue Ethics: An approach that emphasises the moral character of the agent rather than rules or consequences; asks ‘what would a virtuous person do?’
德性伦理学： 一种强调能动者道德品格而非规则或后果的进路；问道“一个有德性的人会怎么做？”
Utilitarianism: A type of consequentialism that promotes actions producing the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
功利主义： 一种效果论，主张能产生最大多数人最大幸福的行为。
Categorical Imperative: In Kantian deontology, a universal moral law that commands us to act only according to maxims that could be willed as universal laws.
定言命令： 康德的义务论中的一条普遍道德法则，要求我们只按照能够同时意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。
4. Logic: Reasoning and Argument | 逻辑学：推理与论证
Logic provides the tools for constructing and evaluating arguments. A firm grasp of logical vocabulary enables you to spot weak reasoning and build persuasive, coherent cases. These terms are vital for essay writing and critical thinking.
逻辑学提供了构建和评价论证的工具。牢固掌握逻辑词汇能让你发现薄弱的推理，并建立有说服力且连贯的论证。这些术语对于论文写作和批判性思维至关重要。
Argument: A set of statements in which some (premises) are intended to support another (conclusion).
论证： 一组陈述，其中一些（前提）旨在支持另一个陈述（结论）。
Premise: A statement offered as evidence or reason within an argument.
前提： 论证中被当作证据或理由提出的陈述。
Conclusion: The statement that the argument is trying to prove or establish.
结论： 论证试图证明或确立的陈述。
Validity: A property of an argument where the conclusion logically follows from the premises; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
有效性： 论证的一种性质，指结论从前提中逻辑地得出；如果前提为真，结论必然为真。
Soundness: An argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are actually true.
可靠性： 一个论证是可靠的，当且仅当它是有效的，并且所有前提实际上都为真。
Deductive argument: An argument that aims to provide conclusive proof, moving from general principles to specific instances.
演绎论证： 旨在提供决定性证明的论证，从一般原则推到具体事例。
Inductive argument: An argument that provides probable support for its conclusion, often moving from specific observations to generalisations.
归纳论证： 为其结论提供可能性支持的论证，通常从具体观察推到概括。
5. Philosophy of Mind: Consciousness and Identity | 心灵哲学：意识与同一性
Philosophy of mind examines the nature of mental phenomena such as consciousness, thought, and personal identity. It asks how the mind relates to the body and what it means to be a self over time. These concepts underpin debates in psychology and neuroscience.
心灵哲学考查意识、思维和人格同一性等心理现象的本质。它追问心灵与身体如何关联，以及作为一个持续存在的自我意味着什么。这些概念支撑着心理学和神经科学中的辩论。
Consciousness: The state of being aware of one’s own existence, sensations, thoughts, and surroundings; the subjective quality of experience.
意识： 意识到自身存在、感觉、思想和环境的状态；经验的主观品质。
Qualia: The individual, subjective qualities of conscious experience, such as the redness of red or the pain of a headache.
感受质： 意识经验中个别的、主观的特性，例如红色的红或头痛的痛。
Mind-Body Problem: The philosophical question of how mental states are related to physical states of the brain and body.
心身问题： 心理状态如何与大脑和身体的物理状态相关的哲学问题。
Physicalism: The view that everything that exists is physical, including the mind; mental states are identical to or supervene on brain states.
物理主义： 认为存在的一切都是物理的，包括心灵；心理状态等同于或随附于大脑状态的观点。
Personal Identity: What makes a person the same person over time despite physical and psychological changes.
人格同一性： 使一个人在历经身体和心理变化后仍然是同一个人的东西。
6. Political Philosophy: Justice and Authority | 政治哲学：正义与权威
Political philosophy explores concepts of government, rights, freedom, and the ideal organisation of society. It asks how we should live together and what makes political power legitimate. These ideas influence laws and social structures around the world.
政治哲学探讨政府、权利、自由和社会的理想组织形态等概念。它追问我们应该如何共同生活，以及是什么使政治权力具有合法性。这些理念影响着世界各国的法律和社会结构。
Social Contract: An implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and abide by its rules in exchange for protection and mutual benefit.
社会契约： 个体之间为了形成社会并遵守其规则以换取保护和共同利益而达成的默示协议。
State of Nature: A hypothetical condition before the establishment of government, used to justify political authority; often depicted as chaotic or peaceful depending on the thinker.
自然状态： 政府建立之前的一种假想状态，用来为政治权威辩护；常被描绘为混乱或和平，取决于思想家的观点。
Natural Rights: Rights that individuals have simply by virtue of being human, such as life, liberty, and property, independent of any legal system.
自然权利： 个体因生而为人就享有的权利，如生命、自由和财产，这些权利独立于任何法律体系。
Justice: The principle of giving each person what they are due; fairness in the distribution of resources, opportunities, and punishments.
正义： 给予每个人其所应得的原则；在资源、机会和惩罚分配中的公平。
Liberalism: A political philosophy that emphasises individual liberty, equality, and consent as the basis of legitimate government.
自由主义： 一种强调个人自由、平等和同意作为合法政府基础的政治哲学。
7. Philosophy of Religion: Faith and Reason | 宗教哲学：信仰与理性
Philosophy of religion uses rational methods to examine religious beliefs and concepts, including the existence and nature of God, the problem of evil, and the relationship between faith and reason. This branch does not assume any particular religious commitment.
宗教哲学运用理性方法来审视宗教信仰和概念，包括上帝的存在与性质、恶的问题以及信仰与理性之间的关系。这一分支并不预设任何特定的宗教立场。
Theism: Belief in the existence of at least one God who is typically conceived as omnipotent, omniscient, and perfectly good.
有神论： 相信至少存在一位神，通常被设想为全能、全知和全善的。
Atheism: The absence of belief in the existence of any God or gods.
无神论： 不相信任何神存在的观点。
Agnosticism: The view that it is impossible to know whether God exists, or suspending judgement on the matter.
不可知论： 认为无法知道上帝是否存在，或对此问题不作判断的观点。
Ontological Argument: An a priori argument for God’s existence that tries to show God must exist by definition, e.g. Anselm’s ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’.
本体论论证： 一种关于上帝存在的先天论证，试图通过定义表明上帝必然存在，例如安瑟伦的“无法设想有比之更伟大者”的论证。
Cosmological Argument: An argument that seeks to prove God’s existence from the fact that the universe exists, often asking for an uncaused first cause.
宇宙论论证： 从宇宙存在这一事实出发，试图证明上帝存在的论证，常追问一个不被动的第一因。
Teleological Argument: The argument from design, which infers an intelligent designer from the apparent order and purpose in the natural world.
目的论论证： 即设计论证，从自然世界表面的秩序和目的推论出一位智能的设计者。
Problem of Evil: The challenge of reconciling the existence of a benevolent, all-powerful God with the presence of suffering and evil in the world.
恶的问题： 将一位仁慈、全能的上帝的存在与世间苦难和罪恶的存在协调起来的挑战。
8. Aesthetics: Beauty and Art | 美学：美与艺术
Aesthetics examines the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and the creation and appreciation of beauty. It questions whether beauty is objective or subjective, and what defines an artwork. These concepts appear in discussions of literature, music, and visual arts.
美学考查美、艺术和品味的本质，以及美的创造与欣赏。它追问美是客观的还是主观的，以及什么构成了艺术作品。这些概念出现在对文学、音乐和视觉艺术的讨论中。
Beauty: A quality that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction; traditionally associated with harmony, proportion, and form.
美： 一种提供愉悦或满足的知觉经验的品质；传统上与和谐、比例和形式相关联。
Sublime: An aesthetic quality that inspires awe, terror, or overwhelming grandeur, often associated with vast natural phenomena.
崇高： 一种激发敬畏、恐惧或压倒性壮丽的美学品质，常与浩瀚的自然现象相关。
Aesthetic Judgement: An evaluation of the beauty or artistic merit of an object or experience; Kant argued it is disinterested and subjective but claims universal validity.
审美判断： 对一个对象或经验的美或艺术价值的评价；康德主张它是无利害的、主观的，但要求普遍有效性。
Taste: The ability to discern and appreciate beauty or artistic quality; often seen as refined sensitivity developed through education.
品味： 辨别和欣赏美或艺术品质的能力；通常被视为通过教育培养的精致敏感性。
Art: There is no single definition, but many theories suggest art is the expression of emotion, significant form, or the creation of an aesthetic object.
艺术： 没有单一定义，但许多理论认为艺术是情感的表达、有意义的形式或审美对象的创造。
9. Key Thinkers and Schools | 主要思想家与流派
Philosophers have shaped the vocabulary you encounter in all areas of the subject. Knowing the names, core ideas, and schools of thought will help you contextualise arguments and answer exam questions with confidence.
哲学家们塑造了你在该学科所有领域中遇到的词汇。了解他们的名字、核心思想和流派，有助于你将论证置于背景中，并自信地回答考试问题。
Socrates: Ancient Greek philosopher known for the Socratic method of questioning; he emphasised the examined life and the pursuit of virtue.
苏格拉底： 古希腊哲学家，以苏格拉底式提问法闻名；他强调经过省察的生活和对德性的追求。
Plato: Student of Socrates, founded the Academy; best known for the Theory of Forms, which holds that non-physical abstract Forms represent the most accurate reality.
柏拉图： 苏格拉底的学生，创办了学园；以理念论最为著称，认为非物质的抽象理念代表了最真实的实在。
Aristotle: Pupil of Plato, tutor of Alexander the Great; developed virtue ethics, formal logic (syllogism), and emphasised empirical observation.
亚里士多德： 柏拉图的学生，亚历山大大帝的老师；发展了德性伦理学、形式逻辑（三段论），并强调经验观察。
Rene Descartes: French rationalist; famous for ‘Cogito, ergo sum’ (I think, therefore I am); proposed substance dualism and systematic doubt.
勒内·笛卡尔： 法国唯理论者；以“我思故我在”闻名；提出实体二元论和系统怀疑方法。
David Hume: Scottish empiricist and sceptic; argued that the self is a bundle of perceptions and questioned the rationality of inductive reasoning.
大卫·休谟： 苏格兰经验论者和怀疑论者；主张自我是一束知觉，并质疑归纳推理的合理性。
Immanuel Kant: German philosopher who sought to reconcile rationalism and empiricism; known for the categorical imperative in ethics and transcendental idealism.
伊曼努尔·康德： 德国哲学家，试图调合唯理论和经验论；以伦理学中的定言命令和先验观念论闻名。
John Stuart Mill: British utilitarian who refined Bentham’s ideas, emphasising higher and lower pleasures and defending individual liberty in ‘On Liberty’.
约翰·斯图亚特·密尔： 英国功利主义者，完善了边沁的思想，强调高级和低级快乐，并在《论自由》中捍卫个人自由。
10. Common Logical Fallacies | 常见逻辑谬误
A fallacy is an error in reasoning that weakens an argument. Identifying fallacies is a key skill in philosophy; it allows you to dismantle weak arguments and avoid faulty reasoning in your own work. Here are some of the most frequent ones found in KS3 discussions.
谬误是推理中的错误，会削弱论证。识别谬误是哲学中的一项关键技能；它能让你拆穿薄弱的论证，并避免在自己的作品中犯下错误推理。以下是一些在 KS3 讨论中最常见的谬误。
Ad Hominem: Attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself. E.g. ‘You can’t trust her view on climate change because she isn’t a scientist.’
人身攻击： 攻击提出论证的人，而不是论证本身。例如：“你不能信任她对气候变化的看法，因为她不是科学家。”
Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack. E.g. ‘He wants to reduce the military budget, so he wants to leave the country defenceless.’
稻草人： 歪曲对手的论证，使其更易于攻击。例如：“他想削减军费预算，所以他想让国家毫无防御。”
False Dichotomy: Presenting only two options when more exist. E.g. ‘Either you are with us, or you are against us.’
虚假二分： 当存在更多选项时只提供两个选项。例如：“你要么支持我们，要么反对我们。”
Begging the Question: Assuming the truth of the conclusion in the premises; circular reasoning. E.g. ‘This medicine works because it is effective.’
乞题： 在前提中假设了结论为真；循环推理。例如：“这种药有效，因为它是管用的。”
Slippery Slope: Arguing that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events culminating in a disastrous outcome, without sufficient evidence for that chain.
滑坡谬误： 认为相对微小的一步将不可避免地导致一系列相关事件，最终造成灾难性后果，但没有充分证据表明该连锁反应会发生。
Appeal to Authority: Claiming something is true simply because an authority figure says so, even if that person is not an expert on the issue. E.g. ‘My favourite celebrity endorses this policy, so it must be good.’
诉诸权威： 仅仅因为权威人士如此说就声称某事为真，即使此人并非该问题的专家。例如：“我最喜欢的名人支持这项政策，所以它一定很好。”
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