📚 Pre-U CCEA Philosophy: Key Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | Pre-U CCEA 哲学：核心术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is the first step towards confident essay writing and precise argument analysis in CCEA Pre-U Philosophy. This guide breaks down essential terms into bite-sized, bilingual explanations, weaving in memory hooks and conceptual links to help you retain terminology across epistemology, ethics, metaphysics, and beyond.
掌握哲学词汇是在 CCEA Pre-U 哲学考试中写出自信论文、精准分析论证的第一步。本指南将核心术语拆解为短小精悍的双语解释，并融入记忆钩子和概念联系，帮助你在认识论、伦理学、形而上学等领域中牢牢记住这些术语。
1. Philosophical Disciplines at a Glance | 哲学分支一览
Philosophy branches into several core areas, each addressing distinct questions. Epistemology asks ‘What is knowledge?’, metaphysics probes ‘What is real?’, ethics examines ‘How should we live?’, and logic studies the structure of good reasoning. Recognising these domains helps you categorise any exam question instantly.
哲学分为几个核心领域，每个领域探讨不同的问题。认识论问“什么是知识？”，形而上学探究“什么是真实的？”，伦理学研究“我们应当如何生活？”，逻辑学则考察良好推理的结构。识别这些领域能帮助你瞬间对任何考题进行分类。
Epistemology – from Greek episteme (knowledge) and logos (study) – deals with belief, truth, and justification. Metaphysics literally means ‘beyond physics’, concerned with being, time, and causation. Ethics, or moral philosophy, divides into meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Logic provides the tools of validity and soundness.
认识论（Epistemology）——源自希腊语 episteme（知识）和 logos（研究）——处理信念、真理与辩护问题。形而上学（Metaphysics）字面意为“物理学之后”，关注存在、时间与因果。伦理学（Ethics），即道德哲学，分为元伦理学、规范伦理学和应用伦理学。逻辑学（Logic）则提供有效性与可靠性的工具。
2. Logic: Validity, Soundness, and Argument Structure | 逻辑：有效性、可靠性与论证结构
An argument is a set of premises intended to support a conclusion. ‘Validity’ means the conclusion follows logically from the premises; it does not require the premises to be true. ‘Soundness’ requires both validity and true premises. Memorising this distinction prevents a common exam mistake.
论证是一组旨在支持结论的前提。“有效性”意味着结论逻辑地由前提得出，并不要求前提为真。“可靠性”则同时要求有效性与真实前提。记住这个区别可以避免常见的考试错误。
Deduction aims at certainty: if premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Induction offers probability: premises make the conclusion likely. Abduction infers the best explanation for observed data. A premise is a reason given; a conclusion is the claim being supported.
演绎（Deduction）追求确定性：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。归纳（Induction）提供概率：前提使结论很可能成立。溯因（Abduction）推理出对观察到的事实的最佳解释。前提（Premise）是给出的理由，结论（Conclusion）是被支持的论断。
Quick memory aid: Valid = Valid structure; Sound = Solid ground (true premises). In deductive arguments, a counterexample proves invalidity.
快速记忆法：Valid（有效）看结构，Sound（可靠）看基础（真实前提）。在演绎论证中，一个反例就能证明无效。
3. Epistemology: Tripartite Theory and Gettier | 认识论：三元论与盖梯尔问题
The traditional definition of knowledge is Justified True Belief (JTB). You know that P if you believe P, P is true, and you have justification for believing P. Gettier cases show that JTB is not sufficient: you might have a justified true belief based on luck, which intuitively does not count as knowledge.
传统的知识定义是确证的真信念（JTB）。你知道命题 P，当且仅当你相信 P，P 为真，且你的信念有辩护或确证。盖梯尔案例表明 JTB 并不充分：你可能基于运气而拥有确证的真信念，直觉上这不算知识。
Infallibilism insists on certainty; reliabilism says a belief counts as knowledge if produced by a reliable cognitive process. Internalism demands that justifiers be accessible to the subject’s mind; externalism allows factors outside the subject’s awareness. Keep these on a spectrum: internal–external, fallible–infallible.
无误论（Infallibilism）要求确定性；可靠论（Reliabilism）认为由可靠的认知过程产生的信念就算知识。内在论（Internalism）要求确证因素对主体心灵可达；外在论（Externalism）允许主体意识之外的因素。把它们放在一个光谱上：内在–外在，可错–无误。
4. Rationalism vs. Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism claims that reason is the primary source of knowledge, with innate ideas (Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza). Empiricism asserts that all knowledge derives from sensory experience (Locke, Berkeley, Hume). The debate hinges on whether we are born with any conceptual furniture.
理性主义（Rationalism）声称理性是知识的主要来源，且存在天赋观念（笛卡尔、莱布尼茨、斯宾诺莎）。经验主义（Empiricism）断言所有知识都来自感官经验（洛克、贝克莱、休谟）。争论的焦点在于我们是否天生带有任何概念装置。
Descartes’ cogito — ‘I think, therefore I am’ — is a rationalist touchstone. Hume’s fork divides all meaningful statements into ‘relations of ideas’ and ‘matters of fact’. Empiricists reject innate ideas with the slogan: Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit in sensu (nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses).
笛卡尔的“我思故我在”（cogito）是理性主义试金石。休谟的叉子（Hume’s fork）把所有有意义的陈述分为“观念的关系”和“事实”。经验主义者用一句口号拒绝天赋观念：Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit in sensu（凡是心灵中的，无不先存在于感官中）。
5. Metaphysics: Substance, Dualism, and Determinism | 形而上学：实体、二元论与决定论
Substance is whatever exists independently; for Descartes, there are two substances — mind (thinking) and body (extended). This is substance dualism. Monism holds there is only one kind of substance, while pluralism posits many.
实体（Substance）是独立存在的东西；对笛卡尔来说，存在两种实体——心灵（思维）与身体（广延）。这就是实体二元论（Substance Dualism）。一元论（Monism）认为只有一种实体，多元论（Pluralism）则假定多种。
Determinism states that every event is causally necessitated by prior events. Libertarianism (in metaphysics) asserts genuine free will. Compatibilism argues that free will is compatible with determinism — free action means acting on your desires without coercion. Remember the formula: Free will as uncoerced choice.
决定论（Determinism）认为每个事件都被先前事件因果必然地决定。意志自由论（Libertarianism）（在形而上学中）主张真正的自由意志。相容论（Compatibilism）则论证自由意志与决定论相容——自由行动意味着不受强制地按欲望行动。记住公式：自由意志即无强制的选择。
6. Ethics: Normative Theories in a Nutshell | 伦理学：规范理论简述
Three families dominate normative ethics. Consequentialism judges actions by outcomes; its classic form is utilitarianism — maximise happiness for the greatest number. Deontology focuses on duties and rules, regardless of consequences (Kant’s categorical imperative). Virtue ethics asks what a virtuous person would do, emphasising character traits like courage and honesty.
规范伦理学由三大流派主导。后果论（Consequentialism）以结果判断行为；其经典形式是功利主义（Utilitarianism）——为最大多数人追求最大幸福。义务论（Deontology）关注义务与规则，不计后果（康德的定言命令）。德性伦理学（Virtue Ethics）则追问有德之人会怎么做，强调勇气、诚实等品格。
Kantian ethics revolves around the categorical imperative: act only according to that maxim which you can at the same time will to become a universal law. Treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means. For utilitarianism, memorise the ‘hedonic calculus’ of Bentham: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, extent.
康德伦理学围绕定言命令（Categorical Imperative）：只按照你同时能够愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。始终把人当作目的，而绝不仅仅当作手段。对于功利主义，记住边沁的“快乐计算法”：强度、持续时间、确定性、邻近性、丰产性、纯度、范围。
7. Meta-Ethics: Cognitivism, Non-Cognitivism, and Realism | 元伦理学：认知主义、非认知主义与实在论
Cognitivism holds that moral statements express beliefs and can be true or false. Non-cognitivism claims they express emotions or prescriptions, not truth-apt propositions. Moral realism asserts that moral facts exist mind-independently; anti-realism denies this.
认知主义（Cognitivism）认为道德陈述表达信念，可以有真假。非认知主义（Non-Cognitivism）主张道德陈述表达情感或规定，而非可真可假的命题。道德实在论（Moral Realism）断言道德事实独立于心灵而存在；反实在论（Anti-Realism）则否认这一点。
Emotivism (Ayer, Stevenson) says ‘X is wrong’ means something like ‘Boo to X!’ — it expresses disapproval. Prescriptivism (Hare) sees moral language as universalisable commands. Think of it as the distinction between emotive ‘Yay/Boo’ and imperative ‘Do this!’
情绪主义（Emotivism）（艾耶尔、史蒂文森）认为“X 是错误的”类似于说“X 呸！”，表达不赞成。规定主义（Prescriptivism）（黑尔）将道德语言视为可普遍化的命令。不妨将此理解为情绪性的“好啊/呸”与祈使性的“这样做！”之间的区别。
8. Philosophy of Religion: Theism, Arguments, and Problem of Evil | 宗教哲学：有神论、论证与恶的问题
Theism affirms a transcendent, personal God; atheism denies it; agnosticism suspends judgement due to lack of evidence. The classical arguments are ontological (Anselm: God is that than which nothing greater can be conceived), cosmological (Aquinas’ uncaused cause), and teleological or design argument (Paley’s watchmaker).
有神论（Theism）肯定一个超越的、有位格的神；无神论（Atheism）否认它；不可知论（Agnosticism）因证据不足悬置判断。经典论证包括本体论论证（Ontological argument）（安瑟伦：上帝是那无法设想有更伟大者）、宇宙论论证（Cosmological argument）（阿奎那的不被推动的推动者），以及目的论论证或设计论证（Teleological argument）（佩利的钟表匠）。
The problem of evil challenges the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God in a world containing suffering. The free will defence argues that moral evil results from misused freedom, which is a greater good. Remember key terms: theodicy (justifying God’s ways) and natural evil vs. moral evil.
恶的问题（Problem of Evil）在存在苦难的世界里挑战全能、全善的上帝存在。自由意志辩护（Free Will Defence）论证道德恶是滥用自由的结果，而自由是更高的善。记住关键术语：神义论（Theodicy）（为上帝之道辩护）以及自然恶（Natural Evil）与道德恶（Moral Evil）。
9. Philosophy of Mind: Consciousness and The Hard Problem | 心灵哲学：意识与困难问题
Dualism insists mind and brain are distinct substances or properties. Physicalism reduces the mental to the physical; identity theory says mental states are brain states. Functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles. The hard problem of consciousness (Chalmers) is explaining why there is subjective experience at all.
二元论（Dualism）坚持心灵与大脑是不同的实体或属性。物理主义（Physicalism）将心理还原为物理；同一论（Identity Theory）认为心理状态就是大脑状态。功能主义（Functionalism）通过因果角色定义心理状态。查尔默斯提出的意识的困难问题（Hard Problem of Consciousness），是解释为何会有主观体验。
Qualia are the ‘what it is like’ aspects of experience — the redness of red, the painfulness of pain. Intentionality is the mind’s aboutness: thoughts are directed at objects. For physicalists, these must be explained without invoking ghostly substances.
感质（Qualia）是体验中“像是什么样子”的方面——红色的红感、疼痛的痛感。意向性（Intentionality）是心灵的指向性：思想指向对象。对物理主义者而言，这些必须在不借助幽灵般实体的情况下得到解释。
10. Political Philosophy: State, Freedom, and Justice | 政治哲学：国家、自由与正义
The state of nature is a hypothetical pre-political condition. Hobbes saw it as a war of all against all; Locke viewed it as a state of liberty under natural law; Rousseau imagined a primitive innocence. The social contract justifies political authority: we agree to be governed in exchange for security.
自然状态（State of Nature）是一种假想的前政治处境。霍布斯视之为一切人反对一切人的战争；洛克视之为自然法下的自由状态；卢梭则想象了一种原始纯真。社会契约（Social Contract）为政治权威提供辩护：我们同意被统治以换取安全。
Negative liberty (Berlin) is freedom from interference; positive liberty is freedom to be one’s own master, realising one’s true self. In justice, Rawls’ difference principle permits inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged. Think of it as ‘justice as fairness’.
消极自由（Negative Liberty）（伯林）是免于干涉的自由；积极自由（Positive Liberty）是自主、实现真我的自由。在正义问题上，罗尔斯的差别原则（Difference Principle）只允许那些能惠及最不利者的不平等。将其理解为“作为公平的正义”。
11. Aesthetics: Beauty, Art, and Taste | 美学：美、艺术与趣味
Aesthetics examines judgments of beauty and art. The problem of defining art arises with readymades like Duchamp’s Fountain. Essentialism claims there is a common essence to all artworks; anti-essentialism rejects this. Aesthetic experience often involves disinterested pleasure — pleasure not driven by practical desire.
美学（Aesthetics）考察美与艺术的判断。艺术定义问题（Problem of Defining Art）因杜尚的《泉》等现成品而凸显。本质主义声称所有艺术品具有共同本质；反本质主义则否定这一点。审美体验（Aesthetic Experience）常包含无利害的愉悦——即不由实践欲望驱动的愉悦。
Aesthetic realism holds beauty exists objectively; aesthetic subjectivism makes it matter of personal taste. Hume’s ‘standard of taste’ suggests that ideal critics, through practice and delicacy of taste, can converge on sound aesthetic judgements. Remember: it’s about the judgement of an ideal observer, not mere whim.
审美实在论（Aesthetic Realism）认为美客观存在；审美主观主义（Aesthetic Subjectivism）将其归于个人趣味。休谟的“趣味的标准”（Standard of Taste）建议通过练习和敏锐感受力，理想批评家能够汇聚出可靠的审美判断。记住：这关乎理想观察者的判断，而非一时心血来潮。
12. Quick Memorisation Hacks for Terminology | 术语快速记忆技巧
Build etymological bridges: epistemology (knowledge + study), ontology (being + study), teleology (end/purpose + study). Recognise roots like ‘theo-‘ (God), ‘cogni-‘ (know), ‘deon-‘ (duty). Create vivid mental images: picture a sound argument as a solid brick wall resting on true foundations; imagine a Gettier case as a clock that happens to be right by sheer luck.
搭建词源桥梁：epistemology（知识+研究）、ontology（存在+研究）、teleology（目的+研究）。识别词根如“theo-”（神）、“cogni-”（知道）、“deon-”（义务）。创建生动的心理图像：把可靠论证想象成建立在真实地基上的坚固砖墙；将盖梯尔案例想象成一个纯属运气碰巧准确的时钟。
Use contrast pairs: rationalism/empiricism, realism/anti-realism, cognitivism/non-cognitivism. Group terms under the five branches: epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, logic, aesthetics. Then link thinkers to positions: Kant–deontology, Mill–utilitarianism, Descartes–rationalism, Hume–empiricism.
使用对比对子：理性主义/经验主义、实在论/反实在论、认知主义/非认知主义。将术语归入五个分支：认识论、形而上学、伦理学、逻辑学、美学。然后将思想家与立场对应起来：康德–义务论、密尔–功利主义、笛卡尔–理性主义、休谟–经验主义。
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