Pre-U WJEC Politics: Key Terminology Quick Guide | Pre-U WJEC 政治：词汇术语速记指南

📚 Pre-U WJEC Politics: Key Terminology Quick Guide | Pre-U WJEC 政治：词汇术语速记指南

Mastering political science terminology is essential for high achievement in Pre-U WJEC Politics. This guide organises core concepts into clear definitions, memory hooks, and bilingual explanations. By engaging with each term through paired English and Chinese explanations, you deepen understanding, strengthen recall, and build the precise vocabulary needed for essays and source analysis.

掌握政治学术语是 Pre-U WJEC 政治取得高分的基础。本指南将核心概念整理为清晰的定义、记忆钩子和双语解释。通过中英文对照解读每一个术语，你能加深理解、强化记忆，并积累论文写作和材料分析所需的精准词汇。

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1. Power, Authority and Legitimacy | 权力、权威与合法性

Power is the capacity to make others do something they would not otherwise do, often based on coercion, rewards, or influence. It can be held by individuals, groups or institutions, and is measured by the ability to achieve outcomes despite resistance.

权力是使他人做其原本不会做的事情的能力，通常建立在强制、奖励或影响之上。权力可由个人、团体或机构掌握，其衡量标准在于即使遭遇抵抗也能达成预期结果。

Authority is the recognised right to exercise power. Max Weber identified three pure types: traditional authority rooted in customs, charismatic authority derived from personal magnetism, and legal-rational authority based on established laws and procedures.

权威是行使权力的公认权利。马克斯·韦伯区分了三种纯粹类型：根植于习俗的传统型权威、源自个人魅力的魅力型权威，以及以既定法律和程序为基础的法理型权威。

Legitimacy refers to the belief that a political system, institution, or decision is rightful and deserves obedience. Without legitimacy, power becomes raw coercion. Legitimacy can flow from popular consent, constitutional rules, or historical tradition.

合法性指人们相信某一政治体系、机构或决策具有正当性并应服从。丧失合法性，权力就会沦为赤裸裸的强制。合法性的来源可以是民众同意、宪法规则或历史传统。

Quick memory: Power = ‘I can’; Authority = ‘I may’; Legitimacy = ‘I am rightfully obeyed.’

速记： 权力 = “我能”；权威 = “我可”；合法性 = “我正当受从”。

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2. Democracy and Its Models | 民主及其模式

Direct democracy is a system in which citizens themselves make policy decisions, for example through referendums or citizen assemblies. It emphasises popular self-government but is often impractical in large, complex societies.

直接民主是公民自己作出政策决策的制度，例如通过全民公投或公民集会。它强调人民自我统治，但在大型复杂社会中往往难以操作。

Representative democracy is the more common model where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Free and fair elections, accountable government, and protected civil liberties are its essential features.

代议制民主是更普遍的模式，公民选举代表代其作出决策。自由公正的选举、可问责的政府和受保护的公民自由是其核心特征。

Liberal democracy combines representative democracy with the rule of law, pluralism, and constitutional protections for individual rights. The state’s power is limited, and minority rights are safeguarded against majority tyranny.

自由民主将代议制民主与法治、多元主义以及对个人权利的宪法保护相结合。国家权力受到限制，少数群体权利受到保障，以防多数暴政。

Social democracy blends democratic governance with a mixed economy and a welfare state. It seeks to reform capitalism through redistribution, public services, and collective bargaining, while preserving political freedoms.

社会民主主义将民主治理与混合经济及福利国家相融合。它通过再分配、公共服务和集体协商改良资本主义，同时保持政治自由。

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3. Sovereignty: Legal and Political | 主权：法律主权与政治主权

Sovereignty is the supreme, ultimate authority within a territory. Internal sovereignty refers to the highest law-making body inside the state, while external sovereignty means the state is recognised as independent by other states.

主权是一国领土内至高无上的最终权威。内部主权指国家内部最高的立法机构，外部主权则意味着国家被其他国家承认为独立实体。

Legal sovereignty denotes the body that possesses the unrestricted right to make, amend, or repeal any law. In the UK, Parliament is traditionally regarded as the legal sovereign, as no Parliament can bind its successors.

法律主权指拥有不受限制地制定、修改或废除任何法律的机构。在英国，议会传统上被视为法律主权者，因为没有任何一届议会能约束其后继者。

Political sovereignty identifies where ultimate power really lies: with the electorate, public opinion, or influential pressure groups. Even a legally sovereign parliament may be constrained by political reality and the need for public support.

政治主权则确定终极权力实际归属何方：在于全体选民、公众舆论或有影响力的压力集团。即便是拥有法律主权的议会，也可能受到政治现实和民众支持需求的制约。

Tip: When you see ‘sovereignty’, ask: ‘Who really has the final say?’ The legal answer and the political answer often differ.

技巧： 遇见“主权”一词，请思考：“究竟谁说了算？”法律上的答案和政治上的答案常常不同。

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4. Ideologies: Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism | 意识形态：自由主义、保守主义、社会主义

Liberalism places the individual at the centre, championing liberty, reason, tolerance, and limited government. Classical liberals emphasise negative freedom and free markets, while modern liberals accept an enabling state to promote positive freedom.

自由主义以个人为中心，崇尚自由、理性、宽容和有限政府。古典自由主义者强调消极自由和自由市场，而现代自由主义者接受一个赋能型国家以促进积极自由。

Conservatism values tradition, order, authority, and human imperfection. It is sceptical of rapid change and abstract designs, preferring what has stood the test of time. One-nation conservatism supports moderate reform to preserve social cohesion.

保守主义珍视传统、秩序、权威和人性不完美。它对激进变革和抽象蓝图持怀疑态度，偏向于经得起时间考验的事物。一国保守主义支持温和改革以维护社会凝聚力。

Socialism prioritises community, equality, and collective ownership. Democratic socialists seek transformation through the ballot box and welfare state, while revolutionary socialists advocate the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of common ownership.

社会主义优先考虑共同体、平等和集体所有制。民主社会主义者通过选票和福利国家追求变革，革命社会主义者则主张推翻资本主义并建立公有制。

Memory chain: Liberalism = liberty + reason; Conservatism = tradition + prudence; Socialism = equality + community.

记忆链： 自由主义 = 自由 + 理性；保守主义 = 传统 + 审慎；社会主义 = 平等 + 共同体。

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5. The State and Its Features | 国家及其特征

The state is the set of institutions that claim a monopoly of legitimate force within a given territory. It includes the government, bureaucracy, judiciary, police, and military. The government is the temporary set of office holders who run the state apparatus.

国家是要求在给定领土内垄断合法暴力的制度集合，包括政府、官僚机构、司法、警察和军队。政府则是暂时掌管国家机器的公职人员群体。

The Montevideo Convention defines a state as possessing a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. These criteria are central to international recognition.

《蒙得维的亚公约》将国家定义为拥有常住人口、确定领土、政府及与他国交往能力。这些标准是国际承认的核心依据。

A nation is a cultural or ethnic group bound by shared identity, language, history, or heritage. A nation-state exists when the boundaries of a nation and a state largely coincide, such as Japan. In multinational states like the UK, several nations coexist under one sovereign authority.

民族是由共同身份、语言、历史或文化遗产联结的文化或族裔群体。民族国家指民族与国家的边界大致重合，如日本。在多民族国家（如英国），若干民族共同处于一个主权权威之下。

Don’t confuse: State is permanent and impersonal; government is temporary and partisan.

切勿混淆： 国家是恒久的、非人格化的；政府是临时的、党派性的。

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6. Rights and Liberties: Negative vs Positive | 权利与自由：消极自由与积极自由

Isaiah Berlin’s concept of negative liberty means freedom from external interference. If no one stops you from speaking, you enjoy negative liberty. It is the absence of coercion or obstacles imposed by others.

以赛亚·伯林的消极自由概念指免于外部干涉的自由。如果没有人阻止你说话，你就享有消极自由。它是没有他人强加的强制或障碍。

Positive liberty is the freedom to be one’s own master, to realise one’s potential and make meaningful choices. It often requires enabling conditions such as education, healthcare, and economic security.

积极自由是成为自己主人的自由，即实现自身潜能并作出有意义选择的能力。它往往要求教育、医疗和经济安全等赋能条件。

Civil liberties are fundamental freedoms that protect individuals from state overreach, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion. They are often entrenched in bills of rights.

公民自由是保护个人免受国家过度干预的基本自由，如言论、集会和宗教自由。它们常被载入权利法案中予以巩固。

Human rights are universal moral entitlements that belong to all people regardless of citizenship. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) sets out a common standard, though enforcement remains contentious.

人权是普遍的道义权利，属于所有人，不论其国籍。《世界人权宣言》（1948 年）确立了共同标准，但执行问题仍存争议。

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7. Political Parties and Party Systems | 政党与政党制度

A political party is an organised group that seeks to win government power, usually by contesting elections. Parties aggregate interests, recruit leaders, formulate policy, and provide a platform for political participation.

政党是有组织地争取政府权力的团体，通常通过竞选实现。政党汇聚利益、遴选领袖、制定政策，并为政治参与提供平台。

Party system describes the number and relative strength of parties that regularly compete for power. A one-party system allows only one legitimate party; a dominant-party system tolerates opposition but one party consistently wins.

政党制度描述定期竞争权力的政党的数量及其相对实力。一党制只允许一个合法政党存在；一党独大制容许多元存在，但某一政党持续胜选。

Two-party systems feature two major parties alternating in government, as in the United States. Multi-party systems have several significant parties, often requiring coalition governments. Party systems are shaped by electoral rules, social cleavages, and historical development.

两党制以两大政党轮流执政为特征，如美国。多党制有多个重要政党，经常需要组建联合政府。政党制度受到选举规则、社会分裂和历史发展的塑造。

Exam tip: Distinguish ‘party’ from ‘party system’. A party is an actor; the party system is the structure of competition.

答题提示： 区分“政党”与“政党制度”。政党是行为者，政党制度是竞争的结构。

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8. Electoral Systems: Majoritarian vs Proportional | 选举制度：多数制与比例代表制

First-past-the-post (FPTP) is a plurality system used in UK general elections. Voters choose one candidate per constituency, and the candidate with the most votes wins, even if that is less than half. It tends to produce strong single-party governments but can distort the share of seats.

简单多数制（FPTP）是英国大选所用的相对多数制。每个选区选民选一人，得票最多者当选，即便未获半数。它易产生强大的单一政党政府，但会扭曲席次比例。

Proportional representation (PR) aims to match the percentage of votes a party receives with its percentage of seats. Variants include party-list PR and the single transferable vote (STV). PR enhances fairness and minority representation but often yields coalition governments.

比例代表制（PR）旨在使政党得票率与其席次比例相匹配。变体包括政党名单比例代表制和单一可转移投票制（STV）。PR 提升公平性与少数群体代表性，但常形成联合政府。

The additional member system (AMS), used in Scotland and Wales, combines single-member constituency seats won by FPTP with regional list seats allocated proportionally. It aims to balance local representation with overall proportionality.

附加成员制（AMS），用于苏格兰和威尔士，将 FPTP 产生的单议席选区席位与按比例分配的区域名单席位相结合，力求平衡地方代表性与总体比例性。

Key distinction: Majoritarian systems prioritise decisive government; proportional systems prioritise representative fairness.

关键区别： 多数制优先考虑政府决策力；比例制优先考虑代表性公平。

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9. Constitutions: Codified and Uncodified | 宪法：成文宪法与不成文宪法

A constitution is the set of fundamental rules that establish the structure, powers, and limits of government, along with the relationship between the state and the individual. It defines where sovereignty lies.

宪法是一套基本规则，确立政府的结构、权力和界限，以及国家与个人的关系。它界定主权归属。

A codified constitution is written in a single entrenched document, such as the U.S. Constitution. It enjoys superior legal status, is difficult to amend, and often includes a bill of rights enforceable by the courts.

成文宪法载于单一牢固的文件中，如美国宪法。它具有最高法律地位，难以修正，通常包含可由法院强制实施的权利法案。

An uncodified constitution, like that of the United Kingdom, is not contained in one single document. It derives from statutes, common law, conventions, and works of authority. It is flexible and can evolve through ordinary legislation.

不成文宪法，如英国宪法，并非包含在单一文件之中。它源于成文法、普通法、惯例和权威著作。它灵活，可通过一般立法演变。

Constitutional conventions are non-legal rules binding those who operate the constitution. For example, the monarch appoints as Prime Minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons. Conventions are essential to the working of an uncodified constitution.

宪法惯例是约束宪法运作者的非法律规则。例如，君主任命最有可能赢得下议院信任者为首相。惯例对不成文宪法的运转至关重要。

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10. Participation: Pressure Groups and Social Movements | 参与：压力集团与社会运动

Pressure groups are organised associations that seek to influence government policy without seeking elected office. They differ from political parties in that they do not put forward candidates for election.

压力集团是有组织地试图影响政府政策但不争取当选的团体。它们与政党不同，不推举选举候选人。

Insider groups enjoy regular, privileged access to decision-makers and are often consulted during policy formulation. They tend to use quiet lobbying and submit evidence to committees.

圈内集团享有与决策者定期、特权的接触渠道，常在政策制定过程中被征询。它们倾向使用低调游说和向委员会提交证据。

Outsider groups either choose to remain outside or are excluded from formal consultation. They may resort to direct action, protests, and media campaigns to generate public pressure. Some aim to shift values rather than secure immediate policy change.

圈外集团或选择置身圈外，或被排除在正式咨询之外。它们可能诉诸直接行动、抗议和媒体运动以制造公众压力。有些旨在转变价值观而非立即改变政策。

Social movements are broader, looser networks of individuals and organisations united by a shared cause, such as environmentalism or civil rights. They often create the cultural and political conditions in which pressure groups and parties later operate more effectively.

社会运动是由共同事业（如环保或民权）联合起来的更广泛、松散的个人和组织网络。它们常创造文化和政治条件，使压力集团和政党后续能更有效地运作。

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