📚 Pre-U WJEC Sociology: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | Pre-U WJEC 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
This bilingual glossary is designed to help Pre-U WJEC Sociology students rapidly recall essential concepts for the examination. Each term is presented first in English with a concise academic definition, immediately followed by a Chinese equivalent and explanation. Use this guide to reinforce your understanding of sociological perspectives, research methods, and core topics such as education, crime, family, and inequality.
本双语术语速记指南旨在帮助 Pre-U WJEC 社会学考生快速回顾考试核心概念。每个术语先给出英文简明学术定义，紧接着提供对应的中文释义与解释。利用本指南巩固你对于社会学视角、研究方法以及教育、犯罪、家庭与不平等等重点主题的理解。
1. Foundational Sociological Perspectives | 社会学基础视角术语
Functionalism: A consensus theory that views society as a system of interconnected parts, each performing a function to maintain stability and social order.
功能主义：一种共识论视角，认为社会是由相互关联的部分组成的系统，各部分履行特定功能以维持稳定和社会秩序。
Marxism: A conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx, emphasising class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, and the role of economic base in shaping superstructure.
马克思主义：一种基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突论，强调资产阶级与无产阶级之间的阶级斗争，以及经济基础对上层建筑的决定作用。
Feminism: A conflict perspective highlighting gender inequality and patriarchy. It critiques the male dominance embedded in social institutions and seeks gender liberation.
女性主义：一种关注性别不平等与父权制的冲突视角，批判社会制度中根深蒂固的男性支配，并追求性别解放。
Interactionism: A micro-sociological approach focusing on small-scale interactions and how individuals interpret and construct meanings through symbols and daily encounters.
互动论：一种微观社会学取向，关注小范围互动以及个体如何通过符号和日常接触解释并建构意义。
New Right: A perspective blending free-market economics with traditional social values. It argues for reduced state intervention, individual responsibility and the centrality of the nuclear family.
新右派：一种融合自由市场经济学与传统社会价值观的视角，主张减少国家干预、强调个人责任及核心家庭的核心地位。
2. Research Methodology Essentials | 研究方法精要术语
Validity: The extent to which a research instrument measures what it claims to measure, producing a truthful and authentic picture of social reality.
效度：研究工具在多大程度上测量了它所声称要测量的内容，从而产生对社会现实的真实、可信的描绘。
Reliability: The consistency and repeatability of research findings. If another researcher replicates the study under the same conditions, similar results should be obtained.
信度：研究结果的一致性和可重复性。若其他研究者在相同条件下重复该研究，应能获得相似结果。
Representativeness: The degree to which a sample mirrors the characteristics of the wider target population, allowing generalisations to be made.
代表性：样本在多大程度上反映了更广泛目标总体的特征，从而使得推论成为可能。
Positivism: A methodological stance advocating the use of natural science methods in sociology. It prefers quantitative data, objectivity and the search for causal laws.
实证主义：主张将自然科学方法应用于社会学研究的一种方法论立场，偏好定量数据、客观性和探寻因果规律。
Interpretivism: A methodological approach arguing that sociology’s subject matter is inherently meaningful human action, requiring empathetic understanding (Verstehen) and qualitative methods.
解释主义：一种方法论取向，主张社会学的研究对象本质上是有意义的人类行动，需要运用移情理解（理解）和质性方法。
3. Culture, Socialisation and Identity | 文化、社会化与身份术语
Culture: The whole way of life of a society, including its norms, values, beliefs, language and material objects. It is learned and shared across generations.
文化：一个社会的整体生活方式，包括其规范、价值观、信仰、语言和物质产品。文化是习得的并在代际间共享。
Norms: Specific rules or expectations that govern behaviour in particular situations, such as queuing or saying ‘please’ and ‘thank you’.
规范：约束特定情境中行为的特定规则或期望，例如排队或说“请”和“谢谢”。
Values: Broad principles and beliefs that provide general guidelines for behaviour, such as honesty, equality and respect for human life.
价值观：为行为提供一般性指导的广泛原则和信念，例如诚实、平等和尊重生命。
Primary socialisation: The earliest form of socialisation, occurring mainly within the family, where children learn basic norms, language and emotional bonds.
初级社会化：最早的社会化形式，主要发生在家庭内部，儿童在此阶段学习基本的规范、语言和情感纽带。
Identity: The sense of self and how individuals see themselves and are seen by others. It is shaped by social factors including gender, ethnicity, class and personal experiences.
身份：自我感以及个体如何看待自己并被他人看待。身份受性别、种族、阶级和个人经历等社会因素塑造。
4. Social Stratification and Class | 社会分层与阶级术语
Social stratification: A structured system of ranking categories of people in a hierarchy of inequality, based on class, status or power. It persists across generations.
社会分层：一种将人群按不平等等级进行排名的结构化体系，基于阶级、地位或权力，且持续存在于代际之间。
Life chances: A concept from Max Weber referring to the opportunities an individual has to access valued resources such as education, healthcare and income.
生活机会：马克斯·韦伯提出的概念，指个体获得教育、医疗和收入等有价值资源的机会。
Social mobility: The movement of individuals or groups between different positions in the stratification system. It can be intergenerational or intragenerational.
社会流动：个体或群体在分层体系中不同位置之间的移动，可分为代际流动和代内流动。
Meritocracy: A system where rewards and social positions are allocated based on ability, effort and achievement rather than ascribed characteristics. Functionalists claim education is meritocratic.
精英统治：一种根据能力、努力和成就而非先赋特征分配回报与社会地位的体系。功能主义者声称教育是精英统治的。
Cultural capital: Pierre Bourdieu’s term for knowledge, attitudes and tastes that the middle class possesses and that the education system values, thus reproducing class advantage.
文化资本：皮埃尔·布迪厄的术语，指中产阶级拥有的知识、态度和品味，它们被教育体系所重视，从而再生产了阶级优势。
5. Education: Key Concepts | 教育领域关键术语
Hidden curriculum: The informal lessons, values and norms transmitted through the schooling experience that are not part of the formal academic curriculum, such as punctuality and obedience.
隐性课程：通过学校教育经历传递的非正式教训、价值观和规范，不属于正式学术课程，例如守时和服从。
Labelling theory: The idea that teachers attach labels to students based on stereotyped assumptions, and these labels can become a self-fulfilling prophecy affecting pupil achievement.
标签理论：教师基于刻板假设给学生贴标签，这些标签可能成为影响学生成绩的自我实现预言。
Self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that comes true simply because it has been made. In education, if a pupil is labelled as ‘bright’, they may receive more encouragement and eventually perform well.
自我实现预言：一个仅仅因为被作出而变为现实的预测。在教育中，若学生被贴上“聪明”标签，可能得到更多鼓励，最终表现良好。
Material deprivation: The lack of physical resources such as adequate housing, income and educational materials, which negatively affects a child’s educational attainment.
物质剥夺：缺乏足够的住房、收入和学习材料等物质资源，对儿童的教育成就产生负面影响。
Comprehensive school: A type of state school that does not select pupils by academic ability, promoting equality of opportunity and a broad curriculum for all.
综合学校：一种不按学术能力选拔学生的公立学校，旨在促进机会均等并为所有学生提供广泛课程。
6. Crime and Deviance Vocabulary | 犯罪与越轨术语
Deviance: Behaviour that violates social norms and elicits a negative reaction from others. It is not necessarily illegal but departs from what is considered acceptable.
越轨：违反社会规范并引发他人负面反应的行为。它不一定违法，但偏离了可接受的范围。
Anomie: Émile Durkheim’s concept of normlessness, where rapid social change destroys traditional bonds and leaves individuals without moral guidance, potentially increasing suicide and crime.
失范：涂尔干提出的规范缺失概念，指急剧社会变迁破坏传统纽带，使个体失去道德指引，从而可能增加自杀和犯罪。
Moral panic: Stanley Cohen’s term for an exaggerated societal reaction to a condition, group or subculture perceived as threatening moral order, often amplified by the media.
道德恐慌：斯坦利·科恩的术语，指社会对被认为威胁道德秩序的某种状况、群体或亚文化的过度反应，常被媒体放大。
White-collar crime: Crimes committed by individuals of high social status in the course of their occupations, such as fraud, embezzlement and tax evasion. Coined by Edwin Sutherland.
白领犯罪：高社会地位者在职业过程中实施的犯罪，如欺诈、挪用公款和逃税。由埃德温·萨瑟兰提出。
Control theory: Travis Hirschi’s theory arguing that strong social bonds to family, school and other institutions prevent people from committing crime. Those with weak bonds are more likely to deviate.
控制理论：特拉维斯·赫希的理论，认为与家庭、学校等制度紧密的社会纽带能阻止人们犯罪；纽带薄弱者更可能越轨。
7. Family and Household Structures | 家庭与家户结构术语
Nuclear family: A family unit consisting of two generations: parents and their dependent children living together. Functionalists view it as the ideal family form for modern industrial societies.
核心家庭：由父母和他们未独立的子女两代人共同居住构成的家庭单元。功能主义者将其视为现代工业社会理想家庭形态。
Extended family: A family group involving three or more generations living together or in close proximity, including grandparents, uncles and aunts. It was more common in pre-industrial societies.
扩展家庭：包括三代或更多代同住或邻近居住的家庭群体，包含祖父母、叔伯等。在前工业社会更为常见。
Symmetrical family: Willmott and Young’s term describing a more egalitarian family where roles are joint and couples share domestic tasks and decision-making more equally.
对称家庭：威尔莫特和杨的术语，描述一种更平等的家庭，角色共同分担，夫妻在家务和决策上更平等地协作。
Lone-parent family: A household with one parent and dependent children. The increase in such families is linked to divorce, separation and changing social attitudes.
单亲家庭：由一位家长和未独立子女构成的家户。此类家庭的增长与离婚、分居和变化的社会态度有关。
Same-sex family: A family unit headed by two individuals of the same gender, with children from previous relationships, assisted reproduction or adoption. Reflects growing diversity of family life.
同性家庭：由同性别两人为首的家庭单元，子女可能来自前段关系、辅助生殖或收养。反映了家庭生活的日益多样化。
8. Gender, Ethnicity and Inequality | 性别、种族与不平等术语
Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate roles in political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property.
父权制：一种社会体系，男性掌握主要权力，并在政治领导、道德权威、社会特权和财产控制方面占主导地位。
Gender socialisation: The process through which individuals learn the norms and behaviours expected of their sex. It begins in the family with pink/blue clothing and gender-appropriate toys.
性别社会化：个体学习符合其性别期望的规范与行为的过程，从家庭中粉/蓝衣物和性别专属玩具开始。
Ethnicity: A shared cultural heritage, including language, history, religion and customs. It is distinct from race, which is often based on physical characteristics.
族群性：一种共享的文化遗产，包括语言、历史、宗教和习俗。它与种族不同，后者通常基于生理特征。
Institutional racism: A form of racism embedded in the policies, procedures and practices of organisations, leading to systematic disadvantage for ethnic minority groups even without individual prejudice.
制度性种族主义：一种嵌入组织政策、程序和实践的种族主义，即使没有个体偏见，也会导致少数族裔群体系统性处于不利地位。
Intersectionality: A concept highlighting how different social divisions such as gender, ethnicity and class interconnect, creating unique and overlapping experiences of discrimination and privilege.
交叉性：强调性别、族群性和阶级等不同社会划分如何相互交织，形成独特且重叠的歧视与特权体验的概念。
9. Media and Communication Terms | 媒体与传播术语
Agenda-setting: The media’s ability to influence the public agenda by emphasising certain issues and ignoring others, thus shaping what audiences perceive as important.
议程设置：媒体通过强调某些议题并忽略其他议题来影响公众议程的能力，从而塑造受众对重要性的认知。
Media amplification: The process by which media coverage exaggerates and reinforces a social problem, often contributing to moral panics and public anxiety.
媒体放大：媒体报道夸大并强化某一社会问题的过程，常加剧道德恐慌与公众焦虑。
Hypodermic syringe model: A media effects theory suggesting that media messages are directly ‘injected’ into a passive audience, producing immediate and uniform effects.
皮下注射模型：一种媒体效果理论，认为媒体信息直接“注射”进被动受众，产生即时且均一的效果。
Cultural imperialism: The dominance of one culture over another through the export of media products, values and lifestyles, often associated with Western, particularly American, influence.
文化帝国主义：通过输出媒体产品、价值观和生活方式使一种文化支配另一种文化，常与西方尤其是美国的影响相关联。
Uses and gratifications: A theory emphasising active audience choice, where people use media to satisfy needs such as entertainment, information, personal identity and social interaction.
使用与满足：一种强调受众主动选择的理论，人们利用媒体满足娱乐、信息、个人身份和社会交往等需求。
10. Globalisation and Contemporary Change | 全球化与当代变迁术语
Globalisation: The increasing interconnectedness of societies across the globe, characterised by flows of capital, information, people and culture, and the compression of time and space.
全球化：全球社会日益相互连接的过程，以资本、信息、人员和文化的流动及时空压缩为特征。
McDonaldisation: George Ritzer’s concept describing the principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability and control rationalising more sectors of social life, modelled on the fast-food restaurant.
麦当劳化：乔治·里茨的概念，描述以快餐餐厅为蓝本的高效、可计算、可预测和控制等原则使社会生活更多领域合理化的过程。
Risk society: Ulrich Beck’s term for a society increasingly preoccupied with managing manufactured risks, such as environmental crises and technological hazards, created by modernisation itself.
风险社会：乌尔里希·贝克的术语，指社会日益专注于管理由现代化本身制造的、诸如环境危机和技术灾害的人为风险。
Postmodernism: A theoretical stance arguing that society has moved beyond modernity, characterised by fragmentation, hyper-reality, incredulity towards metanarratives and constant consumption of images.
后现代主义：一种理论立场，认为社会已超越现代性，其特征为碎片化、超真实、对宏大叙事的怀疑以及影像的持续消费。
Global village: Marshall McLuhan’s metaphor suggesting that electronic media have turned the world into a small community where information spreads instantly, altering human relationships.
地球村：马歇尔·麦克卢汉的隐喻，指电子媒体已将世界变成一个小型社区，信息即时传播，改变了人际关系。
11. Sociological Thinkers Quick Reference | 社会学家快速参考术语
Émile Durkheim: A founding figure of functionalism; studied social facts, anomie, and the functions of crime and religion. Advocated positivism and the use of official statistics.
埃米尔·涂尔干：功能主义奠基人；研究社会事实、失范以及犯罪和宗教的功能。倡导实证主义与官方统计数据的使用。
Karl Marx: Conflict theorist who analysed capitalism, alienation and class struggle. He predicted the overthrow of the bourgeoisie and the establishment of a classless communist society.
卡尔·马克思：冲突论学者，分析资本主义、异化和阶级斗争。他预言资产阶级将被推翻，建立无阶级的共产主义社会。
Max Weber: Argued for a multi-dimensional view of stratification (class, status, party) and highlighted the role of ideas, such as the Protestant ethic, in social change. Advocated verstehen.
马克斯·韦伯：主张多维分层观（阶级、地位、政党），并强调理念（如新教伦理）在社会变迁中的作用。倡导理解的方法。
Pierre Bourdieu: Introduced the concepts of cultural, social and economic capital to explain class reproduction, particularly through the education system.
皮埃尔·布迪厄：引入文化、社会和经济资本的概念来解释阶级再生产，尤其是通过教育体系的再生产。
Ann Oakley: A feminist sociologist who challenged the symmetrical family thesis, showing that women still carry a dual burden and that housework remains a key site of gender inequality.
安·奥克利：女性主义社会学家，挑战对称家庭论断，表明女性仍承受双重负担，家务劳动依然是性别不平等的关键场域。
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