📚 WJEC Pre-U Physical Education: Core Knowledge Points Breakdown | WJEC 大学预科体育：核心知识点梳理
This article organises the essential knowledge required for the WJEC Pre-U Physical Education course, covering exercise physiology, biomechanics, skill acquisition, sport psychology, and socio-cultural aspects. Each section presents key theories and terminology in a bilingual, point-by-point format to aid revision and comprehension.
本文梳理了WJEC大学预科体育课程的核心知识体系，涵盖运动生理学、生物力学、技能习得、运动心理学和社会文化层面。每个小节以中英配对方式呈现关键理论与术语，便于复习与理解。
1. The Cardiovascular System and Exercise | 心血管系统与运动
The heart is a four-chambered muscular pump. The right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and sends it to the lungs; the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the muscles and organs via the aorta.
心脏是一个四腔肌性泵。右心接受全身脱氧血并送入肺部；左心接受肺部含氧血并通过主动脉泵向肌肉和器官。
During exercise, heart rate (HR) increases due to sympathetic nervous stimulation. Stroke volume (SV) rises as venous return improves via the muscle pump and respiratory pump. Cardiac output (CO = HR × SV) can rise from a resting ~5 L/min to over 20 L/min in trained individuals.
运动时，交感神经刺激导致心率(HR)升高。由于肌肉泵和呼吸泵增强静脉回流，每搏输出量(SV)增加。心输出量(CO = HR × SV)可从安静时的约5升/分提升至训练有素者的20升/分以上。
Vascular shunting redistributes blood flow: arterioles to working muscles vasodilate, while those to non-essential organs vasoconstrict. This is mediated by local metabolites such as CO₂, H⁺ and adenosine.
血管分流机制重新分配血流：工作肌肉的微动脉舒张，非必需器官的微动脉收缩。这由局部代谢产物如CO₂、H⁺和腺苷介导。
Long-term adaptations include cardiac hypertrophy (especially left ventricular hypertrophy), increased SV, lower resting HR (bradycardia) and improved capillarisation of skeletal muscle.
长期适应包括心肌肥大(尤其左心室肥大)、每搏输出量增加、静息心率降低(心搏徐缓)和骨骼肌毛细血管密度增大。
2. The Respiratory System and Exercise | 呼吸系统与运动
The respiratory system supplies O₂ and removes CO₂. Air passes through the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles to reach the alveoli, where gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion across a thin respiratory membrane.
呼吸系统提供O₂并清除CO₂。空气经鼻腔、咽、喉、气管、支气管和细支气管到达肺泡，在此通过扩散穿过极薄的呼吸膜进行气体交换。
Minute ventilation (VE) = tidal volume (TV) × breathing frequency (f). At the onset of exercise, VE increases rapidly due to neural feedforward signals, then plateaus during steady-state work. During maximal exercise, VE can exceed 150 L/min.
每分通气量(VE) = 潮气量(TV) × 呼吸频率(f)。运动开始时，由于神经前馈信号，VE迅速上升，之后在稳态运动中趋于平缓。最大运动时VE可超过150升/分。
Oxygen and CO₂ are transported in the blood: O₂ mainly bound to haemoglobin (Hb) as oxyhaemoglobin, while CO₂ is carried as bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻), dissolved in plasma, and combined with haemoglobin as carbaminohaemoglobin.
氧气和二氧化碳在血液中运输：O₂主要与血红蛋白(Hb)结合形成氧合血红蛋白，CO₂以碳酸氢根离子(HCO₃⁻)、溶于血浆和氨基甲酰血红蛋白的形式存在。
The arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-vO₂ diff) widens during exercise as working muscles extract more O₂ from each unit of blood. This reflects improved oxygen utilisation.
运动时动静脉氧差(a-vO₂ diff)增大，因为工作肌肉从每单位血液中提取更多O₂，反映氧气利用能力提高。
3. Energy Systems and ATP Production | 能量系统与ATP生成
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the immediate energy currency for muscle contraction. Its concentration is limited, so it must be resynthesised via three energy systems: the ATP-PC system, the glycolytic (lactic acid) system, and the aerobic system.
三磷酸腺苷(ATP)是肌肉收缩的直接能量货币。其浓度有限，因此必须通过三种能量系统再合成：ATP-PC系统、糖酵解(乳酸)系统和有氧系统。
The ATP-PC system (phosphocreatine breakdown: PCr + ADP → ATP + Cr) provides rapid energy for up to ~10 seconds of maximal effort without O₂. It is dominant in explosive events such as 100 m sprint or weightlifting.
ATP-PC系统(磷酸肌酸分解：PCr + ADP → ATP + Cr)在无氧条件下为约10秒内的最大强度运动提供快速能量。主导100米短跑或举重等爆发性项目。
The glycolytic system breaks down glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP per glucose. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid, leading to H⁺ accumulation and a drop in pH, causing fatigue. This system dominates in efforts lasting 10–90 seconds.
糖酵解系统将葡萄糖(C₆H₁₂O₆)分解为丙酮酸，每分子葡萄糖生成2个ATP。缺氧时丙酮酸转化为乳酸，导致H⁺积累和pH下降，引发疲劳。该系统主导10–90秒的运动。
The aerobic system uses oxygen to completely oxidise glucose and fatty acids, yielding 36–38 ATP per glucose molecule. Key stages are glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain. It supports prolonged, low-to-moderate intensity activities.
有氧系统利用氧气完全氧化葡萄糖和脂肪酸，每分子葡萄糖产生36–38个ATP。关键阶段包括糖酵解、克雷布斯循环和电子传递链。它支持长时间中低强度活动。
During transition between systems, excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) occurs: the fast component replenishes PCr and O₂ stores, while the slow component removes lactate and returns body temperature to normal.
系统转换期间出现运动后过量氧耗(EPOC)：快成分补充PCr和O₂储备，慢成分清除乳酸并使体温恢复。
4. Neuromuscular System and Muscle Contraction | 神经肌肉系统与肌肉收缩
Skeletal muscle fibres are classified as type I (slow oxidative), type IIa (fast oxidative-glycolytic) and type IIx (fast glycolytic). Type I fibres are fatigue-resistant and suited for endurance; type IIx fibres generate high force rapidly but fatigue quickly.
骨骼肌纤维分为I型(慢缩氧化型)、IIa型(快缩氧化-酵解型)和IIx型(快缩酵解型)。I型纤维抗疲劳，适合耐力运动；IIx型纤维快速产生高力但易疲劳。
A motor unit consists of a motor neurone and the muscle fibres it innervates. Fine movements use small motor units; powerful movements recruit large motor units. The all-or-none law states that when a motor unit is stimulated, all its fibres contract maximally.
一个运动单位由一个运动神经元及其支配的肌纤维组成。精细运动使用小运动单位；强力动作募集大运动单位。全或无定律表明，运动单位受刺激时，所有隶属纤维均完全收缩。
The sliding filament theory explains contraction: myosin cross-bridges pull actin filaments towards the sarcomere centre, shortening the muscle. Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum trigger cross-bridge formation. ATP is required for detachment and re-energising.
肌丝滑行理论解释收缩：肌球蛋白横桥将肌动蛋白丝拉向肌节中心，使肌肉缩短。肌质网释放的钙离子(Ca²⁺)触发横桥连接。ATP为分离和再供能所必需。
Proprioceptors such as muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs (GTOs) modulate movement. Spindles detect stretch and initiate the stretch reflex; GTOs sense tension and can inhibit contraction to prevent injury (autogenic inhibition).
本体感受器如肌梭和高尔基腱器(GTO)调节运动。肌梭感知牵拉并引发牵张反射；GTO感知张力，可抑制收缩以防损伤(自生抑制)。
5. Principles of Training and Adaptation | 训练原则与适应
The principles of training (SPORT) include Specificity, Progression, Overload, Reversibility, and Tedium. Overload is applied by manipulating Frequency, Intensity, Time, and Type (FITT).
训练原则(SPORT)包括专项性、渐进性、超负荷、可逆性和趣味性。超负荷通过调整频率、强度、时间和类型(FITT)施加。
Aerobic adaptations include increased mitochondrial density, enhanced oxidative enzyme activity, greater myoglobin content, and a higher lactate threshold. This improves the ability to sustain high percentages of VO₂ max without fatigue.
有氧适应性变化包括线粒体密度增加、氧化酶活性增强、肌红蛋白含量提高和乳酸阈值上升，从而提升以高比例VO₂max持续运动而不疲劳的能力。
Resistance training leads to hypertrophy (increase in cross-sectional area of muscle fibres) and neural adaptations such as improved synchronisation, rate coding, and reduced co-contraction. Heavy loading favours myofibrillar hypertrophy; metabolic stress promotes sarcoplasmic hypertrophy.
抗阻训练导致肥大(肌纤维横截面积增大)和神经适应，如同步性改善、频率编码增强和共收缩减少。大负荷偏向肌原纤维肥大；代谢压力促进肌质肥大。
Periodisation organises training into macrocycles, mesocycles, and microcycles to peak performance at the right time. Tapering reduces volume before competition to allow supercompensation.
周期化将训练安排为大周期、中周期和小周期，以在恰当时间达到竞技峰值。赛前减量训练通过减少训练量实现超量恢复。
6. Biomechanics of Movement | 运动生物力学
Newton’s three laws of motion underpin movement analysis. First law (inertia): a body remains at rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force. Second law: F = ma. Third law: every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
牛顿运动三定律是动作分析的基础。第一定律(惯性)：物体保持静止或匀速运动除非受外力作用。第二定律：F = ma。第三定律：作用力和反作用力大小相等、方向相反。
Levers in the human body consist of a fulcrum (joint), effort (muscle force) and resistance (weight or external load). A first-class lever has the fulcrum between effort and resistance (e.g., neck extension). A second-class lever has resistance between fulcrum and effort (e.g., calf raise). A third-class lever has effort between fulcrum and resistance (e.g., bicep curl); most limb movements are third-class, favouring speed and range of motion over force.
人体杠杆由支点(关节)、动力(肌肉力)和阻力(重量或外负荷)组成。第一类杠杆支点在动力和阻力之间(如颈部后伸)；第二类杠杆阻力在支点和动力之间(如提踵)；第三类杠杆动力在支点和阻力之间(如二头弯举)。多数肢体运动属第三类，偏重速度和活动范围而非力量。
Projectile motion is influenced by release velocity, angle, and height. The optimal angle for maximum horizontal displacement on a flat surface is 45° in a vacuum, but varies in practice due to air resistance and release height. Magnus effect explains how spin alters a ball’s trajectory.
抛射体运动受释放速度、角度和高度影响。真空中平地最大水平位移的最佳角度为45°，但因空气阻力和释放高度实际有所不同。马格努斯效应解释了旋转如何改变球体运动轨迹。
Angular momentum (L = Iω) is conserved in the air unless an external torque acts. By altering moment of inertia (I) through limb position, a performer can change rotational speed (ω), as seen in diving or figure skating spins.
空中角动量(L = Iω)在没有外力矩时守恒。通过肢体姿势改变转动惯量(I)可调整角速度(ω)，如跳水或花样滑冰旋转所示。
7. Skill Classification and Learning | 技能分类与学习
Skills can be classified on continua: gross–fine, open–closed, discrete–serial–continuous, self-paced–externally paced, and simple–complex. A tennis serve is a self-paced, discrete, and closed skill; a football dribble is open and externally paced.
技能可按多种连续体分类：粗大–精细、开放–封闭、分立–序列–连续、自定节奏–外部节奏和简单–复杂。网球发球是自定节奏、分立、封闭技能；足球盘带是开放、外部节奏技能。
Fitts and Posner’s model of motor skill learning has three stages: cognitive (understanding the task, many errors), associative (refining movement, detecting errors), and autonomous (automatic, little conscious effort).
菲茨和波斯纳的运动技能学习模型分为三阶段：认知阶段(理解任务、错误多)、连结阶段(动作精化、可检测错误)和自主阶段(自动化、几乎不需要意识加工)。
Transfer of learning occurs when a previously learned skill influences a new skill. Positive transfer aids performance; negative transfer hinders it; zero transfer shows no effect. Bilateral transfer involves learning a skill with one limb and benefiting performance with the opposite limb.
学习迁移是指已有技能影响新技能。正迁移促进表现；负迁移阻碍表现；零迁移无影响。双侧迁移指一侧肢体学习技能后另一侧肢体表现受益。
Feedback is essential for skill refinement. Intrinsic feedback comes from proprioception; extrinsic (augmented) feedback is provided by a coach or technology. Knowledge of results (KR) and knowledge of performance (KP) are key types of augmented feedback.
反馈对技能精化至关重要。内在反馈来自本体感觉；外在(增强)反馈由教练或技术提供。结果知晓(KR)和表现知晓(KP)是增强反馈的核心类型。
8. Information Processing and Reaction Time | 信息处理与反应时
The basic information processing model involves input from senses, decision making, and output as movement. Welford’s model includes sense organs, perception, short-term memory (STM), long-term memory (LTM), decision making, effector control, and feedback.
基本信息处理模型包含感觉输入、决策和动作输出。Welford模型包括感觉器官、感知、短时记忆(STM)、长时记忆(LTM)、决策、效应器控制和反馈。
Reaction time (RT) is the interval between stimulus onset and movement initiation. It can be divided into premotor time and electromechanical delay. Hick’s law states that RT increases logarithmically as the number of stimulus-response alternatives increases.
反应时(RT)是从刺激出现到动作启动的时间间隔，可分为前运动时间和机电延迟。希克定律指出，随着刺激-反应选项增多，反应时呈对数增加。
Anticipation (temporal and spatial) helps performers overcome slow reaction times. Psychological refractory period (PRP) explains why a player can be ‘sold a dummy’: processing a first stimuli delays response to a second, closely timed stimulus.
预判(时间预判和空间预判)帮助运动员克服缓慢的反应时。心理不应期(PRP)解释了为何运动员会被假动作欺骗：处理第一个刺激延迟了对紧密跟随的第二个刺激的反应。
Selective attention filters relevant from irrelevant information. Cue utilisation theory suggests that at optimal arousal, performers attend to relevant cues; under-arousal widens attention to irrelevant cues, while over-arousal leads to hyper-vigilance and narrowing.
选择性注意从无关信息中筛选出相关信息。线索利用理论认为，在最佳唤醒水平下，运动员关注相关线索；低唤醒时注意力扩大至无关线索，而过度唤醒导致过度警觉和注意狭窄。
9. Sport Psychology: Arousal, Anxiety, and Motivation | 运动心理学：唤醒、焦虑与动机
Drive theory proposes a linear relationship between arousal and performance (P = H × D), but it fails to explain declines under high pressure. The inverted-U hypothesis suggests performance peaks at moderate arousal and deteriorates at extremes.
驱力理论提出唤醒与表现的线性关系(P = H × D)，但无法解释高压下表现下滑。倒U假说认为表现于中等唤醒时最佳，极端时下降。
Catastrophe theory adds that when cognitive anxiety is high, physiological arousal beyond an optimal threshold causes a sudden, dramatic drop in performance rather than a gradual decline. Recovery also requires a significant reduction in arousal.
灾难理论补充指出，认知焦虑高时，生理唤醒超过最佳阈值会导致表现突然急剧下跌而非渐进下降，且恢复需要大幅降低唤醒。
Intrinsic motivation comes from within (sense of accomplishment, enjoyment); extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards (trophies, praise). Cognitive evaluation theory suggests that external rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation if they are perceived as controlling.
内在动机源于内部(成就感、乐趣)；外在动机由外部奖赏驱动(奖杯、表扬)。认知评价理论指出，外部奖赏若被视为控制性，则会削弱内在动机。
Achievement Goal Theory distinguishes task-oriented (mastery) goals focused on self-improvement, and ego-oriented (outcome) goals focused on beating others. Task-oriented athletes are more likely to persist and choose challenging tasks.
成就目标理论区分以自我提高为焦点的任务导向(掌握)目标和以击败他人为焦点的自我导向(结果)目标。任务导向运动员更可能坚持并选择有挑战性的任务。
10. Sport and Society: Participation and Ethics | 体育与社会：参与与伦理
The participation pyramid illustrates progression from foundation (grassroots, school PE) to participation (recreational), performance (club competition), and elite (international/Olympic) levels. Many factors influence progression, including socioeconomic status, gender, and cultural norms.
参与金字塔显示从基础(草根、学校体育)到参与(娱乐)、表现(俱乐部竞赛)和精英(国际/奥运会)的进程。社会经济地位、性别和文化规范等因素影响晋级。
Sport England’s ‘Sporting Equal’ and similar schemes aim to promote inclusion by targeting underrepresented groups. Barriers include lack of time, money, facilities, and confidence. Solutions involve flexible scheduling, subsidies, and role model campaigns.
英格兰体育委员会”Sporting Equal”等计划通过针对少数群体以促进包容。障碍包括缺时间、缺钱、缺设施和缺信心。解决方案包括弹性安排、补助和榜样倡导。
Deviance in sport includes doping, match-fixing, and violence. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) publishes a Prohibited List. Ethical considerations revolve around fairness, health risks, and the spirit of sport.
体育越轨行为包括兴奋剂、假球和暴力。世界反兴奋剂机构(WADA)发布禁药清单。伦理考量围绕公平性、健康风险和体育精神。
Commercialisation and media influence modern sport positively (investment, role models) and negatively (stereotyping, loss of traditional values). The golden triangle of sport, media, and business mutually benefits each party but can shift focus from participation to profit.
商业化和媒体对现代体育有积极影响(投资、榜样)和消极影响(刻板印象、传统价值流失)。体育、媒体和商业的黄金三角相互受益，但可能使焦点从参与转向利润。
11. Diet and Nutrition for Performance | 运动营养
Macronutrients include carbohydrates (CHO), proteins, and fats. Carbohydrates are the main fuel for high-intensity exercise; stored as muscle glycogen, they can be maximised through carbohydrate loading (3 days high CHO intake with tapering).
宏量营养素包括碳水化合物(CHO)、蛋白质和脂肪。碳水化合物是高强度运动的主要燃料，以肌糖原储存，可通过糖原负荷法(3天高CHO摄入兼减量训练)最大化。
Proteins (composed of amino acids) are crucial for muscle repair and growth. Recommendations for athletes range from 1.2 to 2.0 g per kg body mass per day, ideally consumed in frequent doses post-exercise to stimulate muscle protein synthesis.
蛋白质(由氨基酸组成)对肌肉修复和生长至关重要。运动员推荐摄入量为每日每公斤体重1.2–2.0克，最好在运动后分次摄入以刺激肌蛋白合成。
Hydration is vital: a fluid loss of just 2% of body mass can impair cognitive and physical performance. Isotonic drinks (6–8% CHO) deliver fluids, electrolytes, and energy, promoting rapid absorption.
水合作用至关重要：仅丢失体重2%的水分即可损害认知和身体表现。等渗饮料(6–8% CHO)提供水分、电解质和能量，促进快速吸收。
Ergogenic aids include legal (creatine, caffeine, beetroot juice) and illegal substances. Creatine phosphate loading enhances ATP-PC capacity; caffeine reduces perceived exertion and improves endurance. Ethical and health implications must be considered.
增补剂包括合法(肌酸、咖啡因、甜菜根汁)和非法物质。磷酸肌酸负荷增强ATP-PC系统能力；咖啡因降低自觉疲劳并提升耐力。须考虑伦理和健康影响。
12. Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation | 运动损伤预防与康复
Acute injuries (e.g., fractures, sprains, strains) occur suddenly; chronic injuries (e.g., tendinopathy, stress fractures) develop over time due to overuse. The PRICE protocol (Protection, Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation) is initial management for soft tissue injuries.
急性损伤(如骨折、扭伤、拉伤)突然发生；慢性损伤(如肌腱病变、应力性骨折)因过度使用逐步形成。软组织损伤初期处理遵循PRICE原则(保护、休息、冰敷、加压、抬高)。
Warm-up prepares the body physiologically and psychologically: pulse raiser, dynamic stretching, and sport-specific drills increase muscle temperature, enzyme activity, and neural conduction velocity, reducing injury risk.
热身使身体和心理做好准备：脉搏提升、动态拉伸和专项训练可提高肌肉温度、酶活性和神经传导速度，降低受伤风险。
Rehabilitation follows stages: pain-free range of motion, strengthening, proprioceptive retraining, and sport-specific functional exercises. Taping and bracing may offload injured structures.
康复分阶段进行：无痛活动范围、力量强化、本体感觉再训练和专项功能性练习。贴扎和护具可分担受伤结构负荷。
Overuse injuries are often linked to training errors such as rapid increases in volume or intensity, poor footwear, or biomechanical imbalances. The 10% rule advises increasing training load by no more than 10% per week.
过度使用伤常与训练错误相关，如训练量或强度增长过快、鞋具不当或生物力学失衡。10%法则建议每周训练负荷增加不超过10%。
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