📚 AQA GCSE Biology Student Book: Core Ideas and Exam Tips | AQA GCSE 生物学生用书：核心概念与备考技巧
The AQA GCSE Biology Student Book by Ann Fullick and Lawrie Ryan is built around four key ideas: cells, energy transfer, genetics, and ecology. This article reviews the most examinable content in the book and gives you a clear route through Paper 1 and Paper 2. Use each section to check your recall and then apply the ideas to past paper questions.
Ann Fullick 和 Lawrie Ryan 编写的 AQA GCSE 生物学生用书围绕四个关键概念展开：细胞、能量传递、遗传和生态。本文梳理书中最高频的考点，帮助你清晰备考 Paper 1 和 Paper 2。每节用于自查记忆，再将概念应用到历年真题中。
1. Cell Structure and Microscopy | 细胞结构与显微镜
Animal and plant cells share a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells also have a cellulose cell wall, chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole. Bacterial cells have no nucleus but contain circular DNA and plasmids.
动物细胞和植物细胞共有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体。植物细胞还有纤维素细胞壁、叶绿体和中央液泡。细菌细胞没有细胞核，但含有环状 DNA 和质粒。
The magnification formula is used to compare image size and real size. Always convert lengths to the same unit before calculating.
放大倍数公式用于比较图像大小与实际大小。计算前务必把所有长度换算成相同单位。
magnification = image size ÷ actual size
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes, so they can show subcellular structures such as ribosomes and plasmids.
电子显微镜的分辨率远高于光学显微镜，因此可以显示核糖体和质粒等亚细胞结构。
2. Cell Division and Stem Cells | 细胞分裂与干细胞
Chromosomes are made of DNA and contain genes. In mitosis, one parent cell produces two genetically identical daughter cells for growth, repair and asexual reproduction.
染色体由 DNA 组成并含有基因。在有丝分裂中，一个亲代细胞产生两个基因相同的子细胞，用于生长、修复和无性生殖。
The cell cycle includes DNA replication, chromosome alignment, separation and cytokinesis. Before division, each chromosome copies itself to form two chromatids joined at a centromere.
细胞周期包括 DNA 复制、染色体排列、分离和胞质分裂。分裂前，每条染色体会自我复制，形成由着丝粒连接的两条染色单体。
Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning they can differentiate into almost any cell type. Adult stem cells are multipotent and can only form a limited range of cells. Stem cell treatments raise ethical issues because embryonic stem cells are obtained from embryos.
胚胎干细胞是多能性的，几乎可以分化成任何细胞类型。成体干细胞是多潜能的，只能形成有限类型的细胞。干细胞治疗涉及伦理问题，因为胚胎干细胞取自胚胎。
3. Transport Across Cell Membranes | 跨细胞膜运输
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration down a concentration gradient. It is a passive process, so it does not require energy.
扩散是粒子沿浓度梯度从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净运动。它是被动过程，因此不需要能量。
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution. Water moves down its water potential gradient.
渗透是水通过半透膜从稀溶液向较浓溶液的扩散。水沿水势梯度移动。
Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient. It requires energy released by respiration and carrier proteins in the cell membrane.
主动运输逆浓度梯度移动物质。它需要呼吸作用释放的能量和细胞膜上的载体蛋白。
| Process | Energy needed? | Concentration gradient |
|---|---|---|
| Diffusion | No | Down |
| Osmosis | No | Down |
| Active transport | Yes | Against |
4. Organisation: Digestive System and Enzymes | 组织：消化系统与酶
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up. The lock and key model explains enzyme specificity: the active site has a complementary shape to the substrate.
酶是生物催化剂，能加速化学反应而本身不被消耗。锁钥模型解释了酶的专一性：活性位点的形状与底物互补。
Amylase breaks down starch into maltose, protease breaks down protein into amino acids, and lipase breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids. Bile emulsifies lipids and neutralises stomach acid in the small intestine.
淀粉酶将淀粉分解为麦芽糖，蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸，脂肪酶将脂质分解为甘油和脂肪酸。胆汁在肠道中乳化脂质并中和胃酸。
| Enzyme | Substrate | Products |
|---|---|---|
| Amylase | Starch | Maltose |
| Protease | Protein | Amino acids |
| Lipase | Lipids | Glycerol and fatty acids |
High temperature or extreme pH can denature enzymes by changing the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer bind.
高温或极端 pH 会使酶变性，改变活性位点的形状，使底物无法再结合。
5. Organisation: Circulatory System and Plant Transport | 组织：循环系统与植物运输
The heart pumps blood through a double circulatory system. Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure; veins return blood to the heart and contain valves; capillaries allow exchange of substances with tissues.
心脏通过双循环系统泵血。动脉在高压下将血液带离心脏；静脉将血液送回心脏并含有瓣膜；毛细血管与组织进行物质交换。
Xylem transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves in the transpiration stream. Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids from sources to sinks by translocation.
木质部通过蒸腾流将水和矿物离子从根部运输到叶片。韧皮部通过易位将蔗糖和氨基酸从源运输到库。
Coronary heart disease can be reduced by stents that keep arteries open, statins that lower blood cholesterol, or lifestyle changes such as stopping smoking and doing regular exercise.
冠心病可通过支架保持动脉通畅、他汀类药物降低血液胆固醇，或改变生活方式（如戒烟和定期锻炼）来缓解。
6. Infection and Response | 感染与反应
Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists. Bacteria release toxins that damage cells; viruses reproduce inside host cells and cause cell damage.
病原体包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。细菌释放损害细胞的毒素；病毒在宿主细胞内繁殖并造成细胞损伤。
White blood cells defend the body by phagocytosis, producing antibodies and producing antitoxins. Antibodies bind to specific antigens on pathogens and lead to their destruction.
白细胞通过吞噬作用、产生抗体和产生抗毒素来保护身体。抗体与病原体上的特定抗原结合并导致其被破坏。
Vaccination introduces an inactive or weakened pathogen to stimulate memory lymphocytes. If the real pathogen later enters the body, memory cells produce antibodies more rapidly.
疫苗通过引入失活或减毒的病原体来刺激记忆淋巴细胞。如果真正的病原体之后进入体内，记忆细胞能更快产生抗体。
Antibiotics kill bacteria but do not affect viruses because viruses live inside host cells and lack their own metabolic pathways.
抗生素杀死细菌，但对病毒无效，因为病毒生活在宿主细胞内且没有自身的代谢途径。
7. Bioenergetics: Photosynthesis | 生物能学：光合作用
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. The reaction takes place in chloroplasts using chlorophyll.
光合作用将光能转化为储存在葡萄糖中的化学能。该反应在叶绿体中利用叶绿素进行。
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
The rate of photosynthesis is limited by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. The limiting factor is the factor nearest its minimum value.
光合速率受光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度限制。限制因子是最接近其最小值的因素。
light intensity ∝ 1 ÷ distance²
The inverse square law shows that doubling the distance from a lamp reduces light intensity to one quarter.
平方反比定律表明，与灯的距离加倍会使光照强度减少到四分之一。
8. Bioenergetics: Respiration and Metabolism | 生物能学：呼吸与代谢
Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to release energy from glucose. It takes place in mitochondria and produces carbon dioxide and water.
有氧呼吸利用氧气从葡萄糖中释放能量。它在线粒体中进行，产生二氧化碳和水。
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells produces lactic acid, which causes muscle fatigue and oxygen debt. In yeast and plant cells, anaerobic respiration produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.
肌细胞无氧呼吸产生乳酸，导致肌肉疲劳和氧债。在酵母和植物细胞中，无氧呼吸产生乙醇和二氧化碳。
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body, including the synthesis of proteins, lipids and glycogen, and the breakdown of excess proteins into urea.
代谢是体内所有化学反应的总和，包括蛋白质、脂质和糖原的合成，以及过量蛋白质分解为尿素。
9. Homeostasis and the Nervous System | 稳态与神经系统
Homeostasis maintains stable internal conditions, such as blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water levels. Negative feedback reverses any movement away from the set point.
稳态维持内部环境稳定，如血糖浓度、体温和水分含量。负反馈
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