📚 IGCSE CAIE Chinese: Quick Reference Handbook of Formulas and Rules | IGCSE CAIE 中文：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook turns key IGCSE CAIE Chinese language rules into clear ‘formulas’ and ‘theorems’. It covers pinyin, characters, grammar, reading, writing and classical Chinese so you can revise efficiently before the exam.
本速查手册把 IGCSE CAIE 中文的核心语言规则整理成清晰的 ‘公式’ 和 ‘定理’。内容涵盖拼音、汉字、语法、阅读、写作和文言文，帮助你在考前高效复习。
1. Pinyin Spelling and Tone Rules | 拼音拼写与声调规则
Pinyin is the foundation of Mandarin pronunciation. The basic tone formula is: initial + final + tone mark. The tone mark always sits on the main vowel according to the order a, o, e, i, u, ü.
拼音是普通话发音的基础。基本声调公式是：声母 + 韵母 + 声调符号。声调符号总是标在主要元音上，顺序为 a、o、e、i、u、ü。
When a syllable begins with i, u or ü and has no initial, y or w is added: i becomes yi, u becomes wu, ü becomes yu. The two dots on ü are dropped after j, q, x.
当音节以 i、u 或 ü 开头且没有声母时，要加上 y 或 w：i 变成 yi，u 变成 wu，ü 变成 yu。ü 在 j、q、x 后省略两点。
tone mark rule: a → o → e → i → u → ü
For the characters 一 and 不, tone changes depend on the following syllable: 一 uses the fourth tone before first, second and third tones, but the second tone before a fourth tone; 不 uses the fourth tone before first, second and third tones, but the second tone before a fourth tone.
‘一’ 和 ‘不’ 的声调变化取决于后面的音节：’一’ 在第一、二、三声前读第四声，在第四声前读第二声；’不’ 在第一、二、三声前读第四声，在第四声前读第二声。
2. Chinese Character Structure and Radicals | 汉字结构与偏旁部首
Most Chinese characters are built from smaller components. The general structure formula is: character = semantic radical + phonetic component. The semantic radical often hints at meaning, while the phonetic component sometimes hints at sound.
大多数汉字由较小的部件构成。一般结构公式是：汉字 = 表义偏旁 + 表音部件。表义偏旁通常提示意义，表音部件有时提示读音。
Common character layouts include left-right, top-bottom, inside-outside and single-body structures. Recognising the layout helps you recall stroke order and dictionary lookup.
常见汉字结构包括左右结构、上下结构、内外结构和独体结构。识别结构有助于记忆笔顺和查字典。
For example, 河 = 氵 (water radical) + 可 (phonetic clue); 妈 = 女 (female radical) + 马 (phonetic clue). Use this formula to guess the meaning of unfamiliar characters.
例如，河 = 氵（水旁）+ 可（读音提示）；妈 = 女（女旁）+ 马（读音提示）。运用这个公式可以推测生字的意思。
3. Word Class Identification | 词类识别公式
Nouns can usually be modified by numeral-measure words, such as 一本书 or 三只猫. Verbs can take objects or aspect markers like 了, 着, 过. Adjectives can be modified by degree adverbs such as 很, 非常, 太.
名词通常可以受数量词修饰，例如 ‘一本书’ 或 ‘三只猫’。动词可以带宾语或动态助词，如 ‘了、着、过’。形容词可以受程度副词修饰，如 ‘很、非常、太’。
Adverbs modify verbs or adjectives and often appear before them: 他跑得很快. Prepositions introduce time, place or object phrases: 在, 从, 对, 向. Conjunctions link clauses or words.
副词修饰动词或形容词，常出现在它们前面：他跑得很快。介词引出时间、地点或对象短语：在、从、对、向。连词连接分句或词语。
A practical identification formula is: if a word can be preceded by 很 and cannot take an object, it is likely an adjective; if it can take an object, it is likely a verb.
实用的识别公式是：一个词如果能受 ‘很’ 修饰且不能带宾语，很可能是形容词；如果能带宾语，很可能是动词。
4. Sentence Components and Basic Word Order | 句子成分与基本语序
The core Chinese sentence order is: subject + time adverbial + place adverbial + manner adverbial + verb + object. Time and place phrases normally come before the verb, unlike in English.
汉语句子的核心语序是：主语 + 时间状语 + 地点状语 + 方式状语 + 动词 + 宾语。时间短语和地点短语通常放在动词之前，与英语不同。
S + time + place + manner + V + O
For example: 我昨天在学校认真地写了作业. In this sentence, 我 is the subject, 昨天 is time, 在学校 is place, 认真地 is manner, 写了 is verb, 作业 is object.
例如：我昨天在学校认真地写了作业。在这个句子中，’我’ 是主语，’昨天’ 是时间，’在学校’ 是地点，’认真地’ 是方式，’写了’ 是动词，’作业’ 是宾语。
Adverbials can also be moved to the front for emphasis, but the basic order above is the safest formula for IGCSE writing and sentence construction.
状语也可以移到句首表示强调，但上面的基本语序是 IGCSE 写作和造句中最安全的公式。
5. Key Sentence Patterns | 核心句型转换公式
The 把 sentence highlights how an action is applied to an object: subject + 把 + object + verb + complement. The 被 sentence expresses passive meaning: receiver + 被 + agent + verb + complement.
‘把’ 字句强调动作如何作用于宾语：主语 + 把 + 宾语 + 动词 + 补语。’被’ 字句表达被动意义：受事 + 被 + 施事 + 动词 + 补语。
把字句: S + 把 + O + V + complement
被字句: receiver + 被 + agent + V + complement
Example: 他关上了门 → 他把门关上了 → 门被他关上了. These three sentences express the same event but shift focus from the agent to the object to the passive receiver.
例句：他关上了门 → 他把门关上了 → 门被他关上了。这三个句子表达同一事件，但焦点从施事转向对象再转向被动受事。
Rhetorical questions use 难道…吗 or 怎能…呢 to make a statement stronger. Double negation uses two negative words to create an affirmative meaning, such as 不得不 = must, 不会不 = will certainly.
反问句用 ‘难道…吗’ 或 ‘怎能…呢’ 来增强陈述语气。双重否定用两个否定词表达肯定意义，例如 ‘不得不’ 表示 must，’不会不’ 表示 will certainly。
6. Connective and Paired Conjunctions | 关联词搭配公式
Paired conjunctions create logical links between clauses. Common pairings are fixed, so you should memorise them as formula units.
关联词搭配为分句之间建立逻辑联系。常见搭配是固定的，因此应作为公式单位记忆。
不但…而且… = not only… but also…
虽然…但是… = although… but…
因为…所以… = because… therefore…
Use 只要…就… for sufficient condition and 只有…才… for necessary condition. Use 如果…就… for hypothesis and 无论…都… for no matter what.
用 ‘只要…就…’ 表示充分条件，用 ‘只有…才…’ 表示必要条件。用 ‘如果…就…’ 表示假设，用 ‘无论…都…’ 表示 ‘no matter what’。
In IGCSE writing, using the correct pairing earns marks for cohesion. Avoid mixing pairs, such as 因为…所以… with 虽然…但是…, which is a common error.
在 IGCSE 写作中，使用正确的搭配可获得衔接分。避免混用搭配，例如把 ‘因为…所以…’ 与 ‘虽然…但是…’ 混在一起，这是常见错误。
7. Reading Comprehension Answer Formulas | 阅读理解答题公式
For summary questions, use the formula: who + did what + result. Keep the answer concise and remove examples, descriptions and repeated information.
概括题使用公式：谁 + 做了什么 + 结果。答案要简洁，删除例子、描写和重复信息。
For meaning questions, especially words or sentences, use: literal meaning + contextual meaning + emotion or purpose. Explain both what the text says and why the writer says it.
含义题，尤其是词语或句子含义题，使用：表层义 + 语境义 + 情感或目的。既要解释文本说了什么，也要说明作者为什么这样说。
For function questions about a sentence or paragraph, use: content role + structural role + expressive effect. Content answers what it says; structure answers how it connects; effect answers how it influences the reader.
作用题关于句子或段落，使用：内容作用 + 结构作用 + 表达效果。内容回答写了什么；结构回答如何衔接；效果回答对读者产生什么影响。
reading answer = content + structure + effect
8. Writing Structure Formulas | 写作结构公式
For narrative writing, follow the story arc: beginning + development + climax + resolution + reflection. Each stage should advance the plot or reveal character.
记叙文遵循故事弧线：起因 + 经过 + 高潮 + 结果 + 感悟。每个阶段都应推动情节或展现人物。
For argumentative writing, use: clear claim + evidence + analysis + link back to claim. This matches the PEEL paragraph formula: Point + Evidence + Explanation + Link.
议论文使用：明确论点 + 论据 + 分析 + 回扣论点。这与 PEEL 段落公式一致：Point + Evidence + Explanation + Link。
PEEL: Point + Evidence + Explanation + Link
A strong introduction uses: hook + background + thesis + signpost. A strong conclusion uses: summary + wider significance + call to action or final thought.
优秀开头使用：引子 + 背景 + 中心论点 + 过渡。优秀结尾使用：总结 + 升华 + 呼吁或最后思考。
For IGCSE CAIE Chinese writing, plan for 15 minutes: choose the question, list 3-5 main points, then write. A clear structure is more important than fancy vocabulary.
IGCSE CAIE 中文写作应留出 15 分钟计划：选题，列出 3-5 个主要要点，然后动笔。清晰的结构比华丽词汇更重要。
9. Classical Chinese Basics | 文言文基础公式
Common function words follow patterns. 之 can mean ‘of’, act as a pronoun, or mark a verb-object relationship. 其 often means ‘his, her, its, their’ or expresses a question. 而 links verbs, showing sequence, contrast or manner.
常见虚词有规律可循。’之’ 可表示 ‘的’、作代词或标记动宾关系。’其’ 常表示 ‘他的、她的、它的、他们的’ 或表示疑问。’而’ 连接动词，表示顺承、转折或方式。
以 means ‘with, by, because of, in order to’. 于 introduces place, time, object or comparison. 为 can mean ‘for, because of, do’ and appears in passive structures like 为…所… .
‘以’ 表示 ‘用、凭借、因为、为了’。’于’ 引出地点、时间、对象或比较。’为’ 可表示 ‘为了、因为、做’，并出现在 ‘为…所…’ 等被动结构中。
文言翻译公式: 逐字对译 + 补充省略 + 调整语序
Translation follows the formula: translate word by word, then supplement omitted parts, then adjust word order to modern Chinese. Do not paraphrase until you have a literal base.
翻译遵循公式：逐字对译，然后补充省略成分，再把语序调整为现代汉语。在获得字面基础之前不要意译。
10. Rhetorical Devices and Recognition | 修辞手法判断公式
Simile and metaphor both compare things. Simile uses markers like 像, 好像, 仿佛: A + 像 + B + feature. Metaphor uses 是, 变成 without comparison words: A + 是 + B.
明喻和暗喻都进行比较。明喻使用 ‘像、好像、仿佛’ 等标志：A + 像 + B + 特征。暗喻使用 ‘是、变成’ 而不带比较词：A + 是 + B。
Personification gives human qualities to non-human things. The recognition formula is: object or idea + human action or emotion. Example: 风轻轻地抚摸着我的脸.
拟人把人的特征赋予非人的事物。识别公式是：物体或概念 + 人的动作或情感。例如：风轻轻地抚摸着我的脸。
Parallelism uses three or more similar phrases or clauses to build rhythm and emphasis. Rhetorical question asks a question that already contains the answer; set-up question asks and then answers its own question.
排比使用三个或三个以上结构相似的短语或分句来增强节奏和强调。反问提出的问题本身已含答案；设问先提问再自己回答。
11. Punctuation and Common Errors | 标点与常见语病修改
Full stops mark the end of declarative sentences; question marks follow direct questions; exclamation marks show strong emotion or commands. Commas separate clauses and items; semicolons join closely related independent clauses.
句号表示陈述句结束；问号用于直接疑问句；感叹号表示强烈情感或命令。逗号分隔分句和列举项；分号连接关系紧密的独立分句。
Common sentence errors include missing subject or object, improper collocation, wrong word order, contradiction and redundancy. To correct errors, first find the main trunk: subject + verb + object, then check modifiers.
常见病句类型包括成分残缺、搭配不当、语序不当、前后矛盾、重复啰嗦。修改病句时，先找句子主干：主语 + 动词 + 宾语，然后检查修饰成分。
改病句公式: 提取主干 + 检查搭配 + 删除冗余
Example: 通过这次活动，使我明白了团结的重要性. This sentence lacks a subject because the prepositional phrase 通过… covers the agent. Correct form: 这次活动使我明白了团结的重要性.
例句：通过这次活动，使我明白了团结的重要性。这个句子缺少主语，因为介词短语 ‘通过…’ 掩盖了施事。正确形式：这次活动使我明白了团结的重要性。
12. Exam-Day Quick Checklist | 考前速查清单
Before the exam, run through this checklist: underline key words in questions; allocate time for reading, writing and checking; check pinyin tone marks and common stroke errors; use planned structures with topic sentences.
考试前快速检查以下项目：划出题目关键词；为阅读、写作和检查分配时间；检查拼音声调和常见笔画错误；使用带主题句的规划结构。
For reading, always answer in complete sentences and use the formula: content + structure + effect when asked. For writing, leave five minutes to proofread for missing subjects, wrong conjunctions and punctuation errors.
阅读部分，始终用完整句子作答，遇到作用题使用公式：内容 + 结构 + 效果。写作部分，留五分钟检查主语缺失、关联词误用和标点错误。
Memorise the fixed patterns: pinyin rule a → o → e → i → u → ü, S + time + place + manner + V + O, PEEL, and 把/被 transformations. These are your ‘theorems’ for IGCSE CAIE Chinese.
牢记固定模式：拼音规则 a → o → e → i → u → ü，主语 + 时间 + 地点 + 方式 + 动词 + 宾语，PEEL，以及 ‘把/被’ 句式转换。这些就是你 IGCSE CAIE 中文的 ‘定理’。
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