📚 IGCSE CAIE Politics: Core Knowledge Mapping | IGCSE CAIE 政治：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide summarises the core knowledge tested in IGCSE-style Politics papers. It explains key concepts in a systematic way, helping you connect institutions, processes and values. Use it alongside past questions to build exam-ready understanding.
本复习指南总结了 IGCSE 风格政治试卷中考查的核心知识。它系统地解释关键概念，帮助你联系制度、过程与价值。建议配合历年真题使用，以建立应考所需的理解。
1. Political Power, Authority and Legitimacy | 政治权力、权威与合法性
Power is the ability to make others act in a certain way, even against their preferences. Authority is power that is widely accepted as rightful, while legitimacy is the belief that a ruler or institution has the right to govern.
权力是让他人以某种方式行事的能力，即使违背其偏好。权威是被广泛接受为正当的权力，而合法性是人们相信统治者或机构有权治理的信念。
Max Weber identified three types of legitimate authority: traditional, charismatic and legal-rational. Legal-rational authority, based on established laws and procedures, underpins modern democratic states.
马克斯·韦伯提出三种合法权威类型：传统型、魅力型和法理型。法理型权威以既定法律和程序为基础，是现代民主国家的根基。
2. Forms of Government | 政府形式
Governments can be classified by who holds power and how it is exercised. The main distinction is between democratic and authoritarian forms, but within democracies there are parliamentary, presidential and hybrid systems.
政府可以按谁掌握权力以及权力如何行使来分类。主要区别在于民主与威权形式，但在民主国家内部，又有议会制、总统制和混合制。
In a parliamentary system, the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature. In a presidential system, the president is separately elected and serves as both head of state and head of government.
在议会制中，行政机关产生于立法机关并向其负责。在总统制中，总统由选民单独选举产生，同时担任国家元首和政府首脑。
States may also be unitary or federal. A unitary state concentrates authority at the national level, while a federal state divides power between central and regional governments.
国家还可以分为单一制和联邦制。单一制将权力集中在国家层面，而联邦制在中央政府和地区政府之间划分权力。
3. Democracy and Authoritarianism | 民主与威权主义
Democracy emphasises popular sovereignty, political equality, free elections, civil liberties and the rule of law. Authoritarianism concentrates power in a leader or small elite, limits political pluralism and often suppresses opposition.
民主强调人民主权、政治平等、自由选举、公民自由和法治。威权主义将权力集中于领导者或少数精英，限制政治多元，并且经常压制反对派。
Democratic systems can be direct or representative. Most modern states are representative democracies, where citizens elect officials to make decisions on their behalf.
民主制度可分为直接民主和代议制民主。大多数现代国家是代议制民主，即公民选举官员代表他们作出决定。
4. Constitutions and Constitutionalism | 宪法与宪政
A constitution is a set of fundamental rules that establishes the structure, powers and limits of government. Constitutionalism means that government power must be exercised within legal and institutional constraints.
宪法是一套确立政府结构、权力和限制的基本规则。宪政意味着政府权力必须在法律和制度约束下行使。
Constitutions may be written or unwritten, flexible or rigid. For example, the UK has an uncodified constitution, while the United States has a codified one with a formal amendment process.
宪法可以是成文或不成文的，也可以是柔性或刚性的。例如，英国宪法是不成文宪法，而美国则有一部成文宪法，并有正式修宪程序。
5. Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances | 权力分立与制衡
The separation of powers divides government into legislative, executive and judicial branches. Each branch has distinct functions: making law, implementing law and interpreting law.
权力分立将政府分为立法、行政和司法三个部门。每个部门有不同职能：制定法律、执行法律和解释法律。
Checks and balances allow each branch to limit the others, preventing any single branch from becoming too powerful. Examples include judicial review, executive veto and legislative override.
制衡机制使每个部门能够限制其他部门，防止任何一个部门权力过大。例子包括司法审查、行政否决和立法机关的推翻否决。
6. Electoral Systems | 选举制度
Electoral systems translate votes into seats. The main families are majoritarian, proportional and mixed systems. Each has different effects on party representation and government formation.
选举制度将选票转化为席位。主要类型包括多数代表制、比例代表制和混合制。每一种对政党代表性和政府组建都有不同影响。
First-past-the-post tends to produce single-party majority governments but can exaggerate the winner’s share. Proportional representation produces fairer seat shares but often leads to coalition governments.
简单多数制往往产生一党多数政府，但可能夸大获胜者的得票份额。比例代表制产生的席位比例更公平，但常常导致联合政府。
7. Political Parties and Party Systems | 政党与政党制度
Political parties aggregate interests, recruit candidates, formulate policy and provide stable government. A party system describes the number and strength of parties, such as one-party, two-party or multi-party systems.
政党汇聚利益、招募候选人、制定政策并提供稳定政府。政党制度描述政党的数量和力量，例如一党制、两党制或多党制。
Two-party systems encourage clear accountability and strong majority government, while multi-party systems offer more representation but may require coalition bargaining.
两党制鼓励明确的问责和强大的多数政府，而多党制提供更多代表性，但可能需要联合谈判。
8. The Legislature: Functions and Structure | 立法机关：职能与结构
The legislature, or parliament, is responsible for making law, representing citizens, scrutinising the executive and approving budgets. It may be unicameral or bicameral.
立法机关，即议会，负责制定法律、代表公民、监督行政机关并批准预算。它可以是一院制或两院制。
In a bicameral system, the lower chamber is usually directly elected and more powerful; the upper chamber may represent regions or provide expert review.
在两院制中，下议院通常由直接选举产生且权力更大；上议院可能代表地区或提供专业审查。
9. The Executive: Roles and Accountability | 行政机关：角色与问责
The executive formulates policy, implements laws, manages public services and conducts foreign relations. It includes the head of state and the head of government, which may be separate roles.
行政机关制定政策、执行法律、管理公共服务并开展对外关系。它包括国家元首和政府首脑，这两个角色可能分开。
Accountability is achieved through parliamentary questions, confidence votes, media scrutiny and elections. Without accountability, executive power can become arbitrary.
问责通过议会质询、信任投票、媒体监督和选举实现。没有问责，行政权力可能变得专断。
10. The Judiciary and Rule of Law | 司法机关与法治
The judiciary interprets and applies the law, resolves disputes and protects constitutional rights. Judicial independence means judges should be free from political pressure.
司法机关解释和适用法律、解决争议并保护宪法权利。司法独立意味着法官应当免受政治压力。
The rule of law requires that everyone, including government officials, is subject to the law, and that laws are clear, public, and applied equally.
法治要求包括政府官员在内的所有人都受法律约束，法律必须明确、公开并平等适用。
11. Civil Liberties and Human Rights | 公民自由与人权
Civil liberties are protections against government interference, such as freedom of speech, religion, assembly and the press. Human rights are broader moral and legal entitlements held by all people.
公民自由是防止政府干预的保护措施，例如言论自由、宗教自由、集会自由和新闻自由。人权是所有人在道德和法律上享有的更广泛权利。
Rights may be protected by a bill of rights, judicial review or international treaties. Emergency powers and national security laws can restrict rights, so safeguards are essential.
权利可以通过权利法案、司法审查或国际条约加以保护。紧急权力和国家安全法可能限制权利，因此保障措施至关重要。
12. International Organisations and Global Governance | 国际组织与全球治理
International organisations such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organization and regional bodies set rules and coordinate responses to global issues like security, trade, health and climate change.
联合国、世界贸易组织和地区性机构等国际组织制定规则，并协调应对安全、贸易、健康和气候变化等全球问题。
Global governance involves cooperation among states, but it also raises questions about sovereignty, representation and the influence of powerful countries.
全球治理涉及国家间合作，但也引发关于主权、代表性以及大国影响力的问题。
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