📚 IGCSE CCEA Psychology: Key Terms Rapid Revision Guide | IGCSE CCEA 心理学：词汇术语速记指南
This rapid revision guide covers the essential vocabulary and terminology for IGCSE CCEA Psychology. Each term is paired with a concise definition and a Chinese explanation to help you memorise key concepts faster and use them accurately in exam answers.
本速记指南涵盖 IGCSE CCEA 心理学的核心词汇与术语。每个术语都配有简明定义和中文解释，帮助同学们更快记忆关键概念，并在考试作答中准确使用。
1. Research Methods | 研究方法
Independent variable (IV): The variable in an experiment that the researcher deliberately manipulates or changes to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
自变量 (IV)： 实验中由研究者主动操纵或改变的变量，目的是观察它对因变量的影响。
Dependent variable (DV): The variable in an experiment that is measured to see whether the independent variable has had an effect.
因变量 (DV)： 实验中需要测量的变量，用来判断自变量是否产生了影响。
Extraneous variable: Any variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable if it is not controlled; researchers try to minimise these to improve validity.
额外变量： 除自变量以外、如果不加以控制就可能影响因变量的任何变量；研究者会尽量减少额外变量，以提高实验效度。
Hypothesis: A clear, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables; it often states how the independent variable will affect the dependent variable.
假设： 关于两个或多个变量关系的清晰、可检验的预测；通常会说明自变量将如何影响因变量。
Operationalisation: The process of defining variables in precise, measurable terms so that they can be objectively tested or measured.
操作化： 用精确、可测量的方式定义变量，使变量能够被客观检验或测量。
Reliability: The consistency of a measurement or result; if a study is repeated under similar conditions, reliable findings should be similar.
信度： 测量或结果的一致性；如果在相似条件下重复研究，高信度的结果应当较为接近。
Validity: The extent to which a study measures what it claims to measure; ecological validity specifically refers to how findings apply to real-life settings.
效度： 研究是否测量了它声称要测量的内容；生态效度特指研究结果能否推广到真实生活情境。
2. Memory | 记忆
Encoding: The process of changing sensory input into a form that can be stored by the memory system.
编码： 将感觉输入转化为记忆系统可以储存的形式的过程。
Storage: The retention of encoded information in memory over time; retrieval is the process of accessing stored information when it is needed.
储存与提取： 储存是指将编码后的信息保存在记忆中一段时间；提取则是在需要时取出已储存信息的过程。
Short-term memory (STM): A temporary memory store with limited capacity, often described as holding about seven items for roughly 15 to 30 seconds without rehearsal.
短时记忆 (STM)： 一种容量有限的暂时记忆储存，通常认为在不复述的情况下可容纳约 7 个项目，保持约 15 到 30 秒。
Long-term memory (LTM): A relatively permanent memory store with potentially unlimited capacity and duration; it includes episodic, semantic, and procedural memory.
长时记忆 (LTM)： 相对持久的记忆储存，容量和持续时间理论上接近无限；包括情景记忆、语义记忆和程序性记忆。
Forgetting: The inability to retrieve or recall information; explanations include decay, displacement, interference, and retrieval failure.
遗忘： 无法提取或回忆信息；解释包括痕迹消退、替代、干扰和提取失败。
Leading question: A question that suggests a particular answer or contains information that can alter a witness’s memory, as shown in studies of eyewitness testimony.
引导性问题： 暗示某种答案或包含可能改变目击者记忆信息的问题；在目击证词研究中被证明会影响回忆。
Cognitive interview: A technique used to improve the accuracy of eyewitness recall by using strategies such as reporting every detail and changing the order of recall.
认知访谈： 一种提高目击者回忆准确性的技术，通过报告所有细节、改变回忆顺序等策略来增强记忆提取。
3. Development | 发展心理学
Attachment: A strong emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver that develops over time and influences later social and emotional development.
依恋： 婴儿与照料者之间逐步形成的强烈情感联结，会影响后来的社会与情绪发展。
Separation anxiety: Distress shown by an infant when separated from the primary caregiver, usually emerging at around six to eight months of age.
分离焦虑： 婴儿与主要照料者分离时表现出的痛苦，通常在 6 到 8 个月大左右出现。
Stranger anxiety: Wariness or fear shown by an infant toward unfamiliar people, which often appears around the same time as separation anxiety.
陌生人焦虑： 婴儿对陌生人表现出的警惕或恐惧，通常与分离焦虑在同一时期出现。
Secure attachment: A healthy attachment style in which the infant uses the caregiver as a secure base, shows distress on separation, and is easily comforted on reunion.
安全型依恋： 一种健康的依恋类型，婴儿将照料者视为安全基地，分离时表现出不安，重聚时容易得到安抚。
Schema: A mental framework or cognitive structure that helps organise and interpret information; in Piaget’s theory, schemas develop and change through assimilation and accommodation.
图式： 帮助组织和解释信息的心理框架或认知结构；在皮亚杰理论中，图式通过同化和顺应不断发展和变化。
Egocentrism: In Piaget’s theory, a young child’s inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view during the pre-operational stage.
自我中心： 皮亚杰理论中，前运算阶段幼儿无法从他人的角度看问题的现象。
4. Social Influence | 社会影响
Conformity: A change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure; it can be compliance, identification, or internalisation.
从众： 因真实的或想象到的群体压力而改变行为或信念；可分为顺从、认同和内化三种层次。
Obedience: Following a direct order from an authority figure, even if it may conflict with personal conscience.
服从： 遵从权威人物的直接命令，即使命令可能与个人良知相冲突。
Minority influence: The process by which a small group or single individual changes the views of the majority through consistency, commitment, and flexibility.
少数派影响： 少数群体或个人通过一致性、坚持性和灵活性改变多数人观点的过程。
Social loafing: The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone, especially when individual contributions are not easily identified.
社会惰化： 个体在群体中工作时比单独工作时付出更少努力的趋势，尤其在个人贡献难以辨别时更明显。
Deindividuation: A psychological state of reduced self-awareness and weakened personal identity that can lead to disinhibited behaviour in crowds or groups.
去个体化： 自我意识下降、个人身份感减弱的一种心理状态，可能促使个体在群体或人群中表现出失控行为。
Diffusion of responsibility: The belief that others will take action, which reduces the sense of personal responsibility; this is a key explanation for the bystander effect.
责任扩散： 认为别人会采取行动，从而降低个人责任感的心理；这是解释旁观者效应的关键因素。
5. Biological Psychology | 生物心理学
Central nervous system (CNS): The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord; it processes information and coordinates responses.
中枢神经系统 (CNS)： 由脑和脊髓组成的神经系统部分，负责处理信息并协调反应。
Neuron: A specialised nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals; it includes dendrites, a cell body, and an axon.
神经元： 传递电信号和化学信号的特化神经细胞；包括树突、细胞体和轴突。
Synapse: The tiny gap between two neurons where chemical neurotransmitters cross to pass a signal from one cell to another.
突触： 两个神经元之间的微小间隙，化学神经递质在此穿过，将信号从一个细胞传递到另一个细胞。
Neurotransmitter: A chemical messenger released from one neuron that binds to receptors on the next neuron to continue or inhibit a signal; examples include dopamine and serotonin.
神经递质： 由一个神经元释放的化学信使，与下一个神经元的受体结合，继续或抑制信号传递；例如多巴胺和血清素。
Fight-or-flight response: A physiological reaction triggered by perceived threat, involving adrenaline release and increased heart rate, breathing, and alertness.
战斗或逃跑反应： 感知到威胁时触发的生理反应，涉及肾上腺素释放、心率呼吸加快和警觉性提高。
Twin study: A research method comparing identical and non-identical twins to assess the relative contributions of genetics and environment to behaviour.
双生子研究： 比较同卵和异卵双胞胎以评估遗传与环境对行为相对贡献的研究方法。
6. Individual Differences | 个体差异
Personality: An individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are relatively stable over time and across situations.
人格： 个体在思维、情感和行为上较为稳定的独特模式，在时间和情境中相对一致。
Extroversion: A personality dimension reflecting sociability, energy, and a preference for external stimulation; introversion reflects the opposite tendency toward quiet and solitary activities.
外向性： 反映好交际、精力充沛和偏好外部刺激的人格维度；内向性则相反，倾向安静和独处活动。
Neuroticism: A personality trait associated with emotional instability, anxiety, and a tendency to experience negative moods.
神经质： 与情绪不稳定、焦虑和容易体验消极情绪有关的人格特质。
Intelligence quotient (IQ): A score derived from standardised tests designed to measure cognitive ability and potential; it is usually distributed with a mean of 100.
智商 (IQ)： 通过标准化测验得出的用于衡量认知能力和潜能的分数；通常以 100 为平均值分布。
Atypical behaviour: Behaviour that is statistically rare, deviates from social norms, or causes distress and impairment in daily functioning.
非典型行为： 在统计上少见、偏离社会规范或导致痛苦和日常功能受损的行为。
Labelling: Assigning a diagnostic category or label to an individual, which can influence how others perceive and treat that person and may affect self-esteem.
标签化： 给个体贴上一个诊断类别或标签，这可能影响他人看待和对待该个体的方式，也可能影响其自尊。
7. Perception | 知觉
Sensation: The detection of physical stimuli from the environment by sensory receptors, whereas perception is the brain’s interpretation and organisation of those sensory signals.
感觉与知觉： 感觉是感受器对环境中物理刺激的探测；知觉则是大脑对这些感觉信号的解释和组织。
Visual illusion: A misperception of a visual stimulus where the brain’s interpretation does not match the physical reality of the image.
视觉错觉： 对视觉刺激的错误知觉，大脑的解释与图像的真实物理特征不一致。
Depth cues: Visual information that helps us judge distance and three-dimensional space; monocular cues need one eye, while binocular cues need both eyes.
深度线索： 帮助我们判断距离和三维空间的视觉信息；单眼线索只需一只眼，双眼线索需要两只眼。
Top-down processing: Perception driven by prior knowledge, expectations, or context rather than only by the sensory input itself.
自上而下加工： 由先前知识、预期或情境驱动的知觉过程，而不仅仅依赖于感觉输入本身。
Bottom-up processing: Perception built directly from the features of a sensory stimulus, with the brain assembling details into a whole.
自下而上加工： 直接根据感觉刺激的特征构建知觉，大脑将细节组合成整体。
8. Learning and Conditioning | 学习与条件反射
Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces a conditioned response.
经典条件反射： 一种学习类型，中性刺激与无条件刺激建立联结，最终单独出现时也能引发条件反应。
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reflex response without prior learning, such as food causing salivation.
无条件刺激 (UCS)： 无需学习就能自然自动引发反射反应的刺激，例如食物引起唾液分泌。
Conditioned stimulus (CS): An originally neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response.
条件刺激 (CS)： 原本中性的刺激，在与无条件刺激反复配对后，开始能引发条件反应。
Operant conditioning: Learning through consequences, where behaviour is strengthened by reinforcement and weakened by punishment.
操作性条件反射： 通过行为后果进行学习，行为因强化而增强，因惩罚而减弱。
Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour to increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.
正强化： 在行为之后给予愉快刺激，以增加该行为再次出现的可能性。
Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour to increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated; it is not the same as punishment.
负强化： 在行为之后移除不愉快刺激，以增加该行为再次出现的可能性；负强化不同于惩罚。
Social learning theory: Learning that occurs through observing others, imitation, and modelling, especially when the observed behaviour is reinforced vicariously.
社会学习理论： 通过观察他人、模仿和示范进行的学习，尤其是当观察到的行为受到替代性强化时更容易习得。
9. Research Design and Ethics | 研究设计与伦理
Laboratory experiment: An experiment conducted in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls extraneous variables as much as possible.
实验室实验： 在受控环境中进行的实验，研究者操纵自变量，并尽可能控制额外变量。
Field experiment: An experiment carried out in a natural setting where the researcher still manipulates the independent variable but has less control over extraneous variables.
现场实验： 在自然情境中进行的实验，研究者仍然操纵自变量，但对额外变量的控制较少。
Informed consent: The ethical requirement that participants are fully aware of the purpose and procedures of a study before agreeing to take part.
知情同意： 伦理要求参与者在同意参加研究前，需充分了解研究目的和程序。
Right to withdraw: The ethical principle that participants may leave a study at any time without penalty and may withdraw their data.
退出权： 参与者可以在任何时间无惩罚地退出研究并撤回其数据的伦理原则。
Debriefing: Explaining the full purpose of a study to participants after it ends, especially if deception was used, to restore them to their original state.
事后解释： 研究结束后向参与者说明研究的全部目的，尤其是在使用欺骗的情况下，以便恢复参与者原有状态。
Confidentiality: The ethical rule that personal information about participants must be kept private and not shared in a way that identifies them.
保密性： 参与者的个人信息必须保持私密，不得以可识别身份的方式披露的伦理规则。
10. Exam Command Terms | 考试指令术语
Describe: Give a detailed account of a topic, process, or study without explaining reasons or making judgements.
描述： 详细说明某个主题、过程或研究，不需要解释原因或作出评价。
Explain: Give reasons or mechanisms to show how or why something happens, often using psychological theories or evidence.
解释： 给出原因或机制，说明某事如何或为何发生，通常需要引用心理学理论或证据。
Evaluate: Make a judgement by discussing strengths and weaknesses, supporting points, and limitations, often reaching a conclusion.
评价： 通过讨论优点与不足、支持点与局限性作出判断，并通常得出结论。
Outline: Give a brief summary of the main points without excessive detail; this is often used for theories or procedures.
概述： 简要总结要点，无需过多细节；常用于理论或程序的说明。
Compare: Identify and describe similarities and differences between two or more concepts, studies, or approaches.
比较： 找出并描述两个或多个概念、研究或流派之间的相似点和不同点。
Identify: Select or name a factor, variable, or feature from a scenario or list without further explanation.
识别： 从情境或列表中选出或指出一个因素、变量或特征，无需进一步解释。
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