IGCSE WJEC Art: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 艺术：公式定理速查手册

📚 IGCSE WJEC Art: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 艺术：公式定理速查手册

Art is not a subject of fixed equations, but WJEC IGCSE Art and Design does have repeatable visual ‘formulas’ that help you control composition, colour, tone, perspective and proportion. This quick reference handbook turns the key rules into easy-to-remember formulas ready for your sketchbook, portfolio and final exam.

艺术不是一门只有固定公式的学科，但 WJEC IGCSE 艺术与设计确实包含可重复使用的视觉“公式”，帮助你掌控构图、色彩、色调、透视与比例。这本速查手册把关键规则整理成易于记忆的公式，方便你在速写本、作品集和最终考试中使用。

1. Formal Elements as Artistic ‘Constants’ | 艺术形式元素作为“常数”

In WJEC IGCSE Art and Design, the formal elements are the constants you manipulate in every composition. The core formula is: Formal Elements = Line + Tone + Colour + Shape + Form + Texture + Pattern + Space. You do not need to use all elements equally, but you must show controlled selection.

在 WJEC IGCSE 艺术与设计中，形式元素是你在每一幅构图中操控的“常数”。核心公式为：形式元素 = 线条 + 色调 + 色彩 + 形状 + 形体 + 质感 + 图案 + 空间。你不需要平均使用所有元素，但必须表现出有意识的选择。

Line / 线条 – direction, weight, speed and character
Tone / 色调 – light to dark value range
Colour / 色彩 – hue, value, saturation and temperature
Shape / 形状 – 2D enclosed area
Form / 形体 – 3D volume created by tone and perspective
Texture / 质感 – real or implied surface quality
Pattern / 图案 – repeated decorative motif
Space / 空间 – positive and negative area, depth

Treat these elements as variables in an equation. When you change one variable, the whole visual result changes. For example, removing colour forces tone and texture to do more work.

把这些元素当作方程中的变量。改变其中一个变量，整个视觉效果都会改变。例如，去掉色彩后，色调和质感就必须承担更多表现任务。

2. Colour Theory Formula: Hue, Value, Saturation | 色彩理论公式：色相、明度、饱和度

Colour can be expressed as a three-part formula. Every visible colour is the result of three variables: Hue, Value and Saturation. The basic equation is:

色彩可以用一个三部分公式表达。每一种可见颜色都是三个变量的结果：色相、明度和饱和度。基本方程为：

Colour = Hue + Value + Saturation

色彩 = 色相 + 明度 + 饱和度

Variable / 变量	Definition / 定义	Artistic Control / 艺术控制
Hue / 色相	The pure colour name, such as red or blue.	Choose hue to create mood, symbol or focal point.
Value / 明度	How light or dark the colour is.	Change value to create depth, contrast and form.
Saturation / 饱和度	Intensity or purity of the hue.	Lower saturation to push elements back; raise it to attract attention.

Mixing formulas follow the same logic: Hue + White = Tint, Hue + Black = Shade, Hue + Grey = Tone. These are not just vocabulary; they are recipes for visual control.

混色公式遵循同样的逻辑：色相 + 白色 = 浅色调，色相 + 黑色 = 深色调，色相 + 灰色 = 中间色调。这些不仅是词汇，更是视觉控制的配方。

3. Colour Wheel and Harmony Equations | 色轮与色彩和谐方程

The colour wheel is a 360° circular model. Harmony equations describe how far apart hues sit on the wheel. The key formulas are:

色轮是一个 360° 圆形模型。和谐方程描述色相在色轮上相距多远。关键公式如下：

Monochromatic = H + 0° (one hue with tints, shades and tones) / 单色 = H + 0°（同一色相加入浅、深、中间调）
Analogous = H + 30° + 60° (neighbouring hues) / 类似色 = H + 30° + 60°（相邻色相）
Complementary = H + 180° (opposite hues) / 互补色 = H + 180°（相对色相）
Split complementary = H + 150° + 210° (softer contrast) / 分裂互补 = H + 150° + 210°（较柔和的对比）
Triadic = H + 120° + 240° (three evenly spaced hues) / 三色 = H + 120° + 240°（三等分色相）
Tetradic = H + 60° + 180° + 240° (four hues in two complementary pairs) / 四色 = H + 60° + 180° + 240°（两对互补色组成的四种色相）

Use these equations as starting points, not rigid rules. In an exam, a well-chosen analogous palette often looks more sophisticated than a random collection of colours.

把这些方程当作起点，而不是僵硬规则。在考试中，一个精心选择的类似色调色板通常比随意堆砌颜色显得更成熟。

4. Complementary Contrast Ratio | 互补色对比比例

Complementary colours sit directly opposite each other on the colour wheel. When placed side by side, they create maximum hue contrast and make each other appear more intense. A useful practical formula is:

互补色在色轮上正相对。当并置时，它们产生最大的色相对比，并使彼此显得更加鲜艳。一个实用的公式是：

Perceived Saturation ↑ when Complementary Pair placed in 1 : 1 area ratio

当互补色以 1 : 1 面积比例并置时，感知饱和度上升

If you want a calmer effect, change the ratio. A small amount of complementary colour, such as 1 : 9, creates a lively accent without vibrating. The afterimage formula also matters: staring at a colour then looking at white produces the complement.

如果你想要更平静的效果，就改变比例。少量互补色，例如 1 : 9，会形成活泼的点缀而不会产生视觉振动。残像公式也很重要：盯着一种颜色再看白色，会产生其互补色。

For example, red afterimage → green, blue afterimage → orange, yellow afterimage → purple. This is a biological colour response, not an artistic preference.

例如，红色残像 → 绿色，蓝色残像 → 橙色，黄色残像 → 紫色。这是生理色彩反应，而不是艺术偏好。

5. Value and Tonal Range Formula | 明度与色调范围公式

Tone is the lightness or darkness of a surface. A simple formula for tonal control is:

色调是表面的明暗程度。色调控制的简单公式是：

Tone = Base Value ± Contrast Step

色调 = 基础明度 ± 对比步长

Imagine a value scale from 0 to 10, where 0 is black and 10 is white. Low key work concentrates on values 0 to 4, high key work on values 7 to 10, and full range work uses 0 to 10. WJEC examiners look for confident tonal range rather than timid mid-tones.

想象一个从 0 到 10 的明度标尺，0 为黑色，10 为白色。低调作品集中在 0 到 4，高调作品集中在 7 到 10，全调作品使用 0 到 10。WJEC 考官看重自信的色调范围，而不是胆怯的中间调。

A shading formula can be written as: Light Source + Surface Angle = Value. Surfaces facing the light have high value; surfaces turning away have low value; cast shadows have the lowest value near the object.

明暗公式可以写成：光源 + 表面角度 = 明度。面向光源的表面明度高；背向光源的表面明度低；物体附近的投影明度最低。

6. Composition and Rule of Thirds | 构图与三分法规则

The rule of thirds divides the frame into a 3 × 3 grid. Focal points are placed at the intersections of these gridlines. The formula is:

三分法把画面分成 3 × 3 网格。焦点放在网格线的交点上。公式为：

Focal Point ≈ (⅓W, ⅓H) or (⅔W, ⅓H) or (⅓W, ⅔H) or (⅔W, ⅔H)

焦点 ≈ (⅓W, ⅓H) 或 (⅔W, ⅓H) 或 (⅓W, ⅔H) 或 (⅔W, ⅔H)

W = frame width, H = frame height. Placing the main subject slightly off-centre usually creates more dynamic balance than putting it exactly in the middle. A centred composition can still work if symmetry is the intended idea.

W = 画面宽度，H = 画面高度。把主体稍微偏离中心通常比放在正中间更有动态平衡感。如果对称本身就是你想表达的想法，居中构图也可以成立。

Leading lines, framing and negative space are also composition tools. Their combined formula is: Focal Point = Contrast + Position + Isolation. The eye is drawn to areas of high contrast, placed at a strong grid point, and separated from busy surroundings.

引导线、框架和负空间也是构图工具。它们的组合公式为：焦点 = 对比 + 位置 + 隔离。眼睛会被高对比、位于强网格点并与杂乱背景分离的区域吸引。

7. Golden Ratio and Proportion | 黄金比例与人体比例

The golden ratio appears in natural forms and classical composition. It is approximately 1 : 1.618. The mathematical expression is:

黄金比例出现在自然形态和古典构图中。它近似为 1 : 1.618。数学表达式为：

φ = (1 + √5) / 2 ≈ 1.618

You can use the golden ratio to divide a rectangle into a smaller rectangle and a square. Place the focal area where the spiral or dividing line falls, slightly inside the rule-of-thirds points.

你可以用黄金比例把矩形分成一个较小的矩形和一个正方形。把焦点放在螺旋线或分割线落点附近，通常比三分法交点略微靠内。

Human proportion formulas are also useful for figure drawing. A common model is: Body Height ≈ 7.5 × Head Height. The halfway point of the body is near the pubic bone, not the navel. Arms hang so the wrist aligns with the hip, and the elbow aligns with the bottom of the ribcage.

人体比例公式对人物绘画也很有用。常用模型是：身体高度 ≈ 7.5 × 头部高度。身体的中点在耻骨附近，而不是肚脐。手臂下垂时手腕与胯部对齐，肘部与肋骨底端对齐。

8. Linear Perspective Geometry | 线性透视几何

Linear perspective creates believable depth on a flat surface. The basic formula is: Parallel Lines + Distance = Convergence to Vanishing Point. There are three main systems:

线性透视在平面上创造可信的深度。基本公式为：平行线 + 距离 = 汇聚到消失点。主要有三种系统：

One-point perspective = 1 vanishing point / 一点透视 = 1 个消失点
Two-point perspective = 2 vanishing points / 两点透视 = 2 个消失点
Three-point perspective = 3 vanishing points / 三点透视 = 3 个消失点

The size-distance formula is:

尺寸—距离公式为：

Apparent Size ∝ 1 / Distance from Viewer

表观尺寸 ∝ 1 / 与观者的距离

In other words, double the distance and the object appears roughly half as tall and half as wide. Always place the horizon line at the viewer’s eye level. Objects above the horizon show their underside; objects below show their top plane.

换句话说，距离加倍，物体看起来大约只有原来一半高、一半宽。始终把地平线放在观者视平线上。高于地平线的物体会露出底面，低于地平线的物体会露出顶面。

9. Atmospheric Perspective Equation | 空气透视方程

Atmospheric perspective is the effect of air particles between the viewer and distant objects. The formula is:

空气透视是观者与远处物体之间的空气粒子产生的效果。公式为：

Distance ↑ → Contrast ↓, Saturation ↓, Value ↑, Hue → cooler

距离增加 → 对比度降低，饱和度降低，明度升高，色相变冷

Distant hills appear lighter, bluer and softer than foreground objects. When painting or drawing a landscape, apply this formula in layers: foreground has strong contrast, dark shadows and warm colour; middle ground has moderate contrast; background has low contrast, high value and cool blue-grey.

远处的山丘比前景物体显得更浅、更蓝、更柔和。画风景时，按层应用这个公式：前景对比强、阴影深、色彩暖；中景对比适中；背景对比低、明度高、呈冷蓝灰色。

The reverse formula applies for a dramatic or graphic style: Distance ↑ → Contrast stays high, Saturation stays high, Value unchanged. This flattens space and emphasises pattern.

反向公式适用于戏剧性或平面化风格：距离增加 → 对比保持高，饱和度保持高，明度不变。这会压平空间并强调图案。

10. Balance, Unity and Visual Weight | 平衡、统一与视觉重量

Visual weight determines whether a composition feels stable. A usable formula is:

视觉重量决定构图是否稳定。一个可用公式是：

Visual Weight = Size × Contrast × Position × Detail

视觉重量 = 尺寸 × 对比 × 位置 × 细节

A small dark shape near the edge can balance a large pale shape near the centre. Symmetrical balance uses mirrored elements around a central axis. Asymmetrical balance uses unequal elements that still feel stable because their visual weights are matched.

边缘附近的小块深色形状可以平衡中心附近的大块浅色形状。对称平衡围绕中轴使用镜像元素。非对称平衡使用不相等的元素，但由于视觉重量匹配，仍然感觉稳定。

Unity is the sense that everything belongs together. The formula is: Unity = Repetition + Proximity + Alignment + Limited Palette. Repeating a shape, keeping items close, aligning edges and limiting colours all increase visual coherence.

统一感是画面中所有元素都彼此协调的感觉。公式为：统一 = 重复 + 邻近 + 对齐 + 有限色彩。重复形状、保持元素靠近、对齐边缘以及限制颜色都能增强视觉整体性。

11. Texture and Mark-Making Variables | 质感与笔触变量

Texture can be real or implied. Real texture is tactile; implied texture is visual. Mark-making is the artist’s handwriting. The formula for a drawn or painted texture is:

质感可以是真实的，也可以是暗示的。真实质感是可触摸的；暗示质感是视觉上的。笔触是艺术家的“笔迹”。绘制或绘制质感的公式为：

Texture = Tool + Pressure + Speed + Medium + Surface

质感 = 工具 + 压力 + 速度 + 媒介 + 表面

Changing any variable changes the mark. For example, the same pencil can create smooth shading with low pressure and slow speed, or rough hatching with high pressure and fast speed. Cross-hatching formula: Two or more layers of parallel lines at different angles = darker tone and denser texture.

改变任何一个变量都会改变笔触。例如，同一支铅笔用低压慢速可以画出平滑调子，用高压快速则可以画出粗糙排线。交叉排线公式：两层或更多不同角度的平行线 = 更深的色调和更密的质感。

Hatching / 单向排线 – one direction only
Cross-hatching / 交叉排线 – two or more directions overlapped
Stippling / 点画 – small dots, density controls tone
Scumbling / 揉擦 – irregular circular marks for soft texture
Sgraffito / 刮擦 – scratching through one layer to reveal another

12. Assessment Objective Formula for WJEC | WJEC 评估目标公式

WJEC Art and Design assessment is based on four assessment objectives. A simple portfolio formula is:

WJEC 艺术与设计评估基于四个评估目标。一个简单的作品集公式是：

Portfolio Mark = AO1 + AO2 + AO3 + AO4

作品集分数 = AO1 + AO2 + AO3 + AO4

AO / 评估目标	What it means / 含义	Quick formula / 快速公式
AO1	Develop ideas through investigations	Idea + Artist Research + Context
AO2	Refine work by exploring ideas and media	Experiment + Risk + Selection
AO3	Record ideas, observations and insights	Drawing + Photography + Annotation
AO4	Present a personal and meaningful response	Final Outcome + Connection to Research

Keep every experiment, even failed ones, because WJEC rewards the journey as much as the final piece. Annotate your work with brief notes that link to the formula, such as ‘I used a complementary contrast ratio of 1 : 9 to make the focal point stand out without vibrating.’

保留每一次实验，即使是失败的，因为 WJEC 既看重最终作品，也看重创作过程。用简短注释把你的作品与公式联系起来，例如“我使用 1 : 9 的互补色对比比例，让焦点突出但不产生振动。”

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IGCSE WJEC Art: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 艺术：公式定理速查手册