📚 IGCSE WJEC Law: Key Rules and Tests Quick Reference | IGCSE WJEC 法律：公式定理速查手册
In law, there are no equations in the mathematical sense, but every legal topic contains repeatable “formulas”: the elements that must be proved, the defences that can defeat liability, and the tests used by judges. This WJEC IGCSE Law quick reference converts the main criminal, tort and contract rules into structured checklists so you can apply them under exam pressure.
法律中没有数学意义上的方程式，但每个法律主题都包含可重复使用的 “公式”：必须证明的要素、可推翻责任的抗辩，以及法官使用的检验标准。本 WJEC IGCSE 法律速查手册把刑法、侵权法和合同法中的核心规则转化为结构化清单，帮助你在考试压力下准确适用。
1. The Criminal Liability Formula | 刑事责任构成公式
Every criminal offence can be reduced to a three-part equation. Unless the offence is one of strict liability, the prosecution must prove the guilty act, the guilty mind, and the absence of a valid defence.
每个刑事犯罪都可以简化为一个三部分公式。除非是严格责任犯罪，控方必须证明犯罪行为、犯罪意图以及不存在有效抗辩。
Actus reus + Mens rea − Defence = Criminal liability
Actus reus is the physical element, such as taking property or striking another person. Mens rea is the mental element, such as intention or recklessness. A defence like self-defence or duress can cancel liability even when both elements exist.
Actus reus 是物理要素，例如取走财产或击打他人。Mens rea 是心理要素，例如故意或轻率。即使两个要素都存在，自卫或胁迫等抗辩仍可免除责任。
2. Actus Reus and Causation | 犯罪行为与因果关系
The actus reus must be a voluntary act or a recognised omission. For result crimes, the prosecution must also prove causation using the ‘but for’ test and the legal cause test.
犯罪行为必须是自愿行为或法律认可的不作为。对于结果犯，控方还必须通过 “but for” 检验和法律原因检验来证明因果关系。
Guilty act + Factual causation + Legal causation = Actus reus for result crimes
Factual causation asks: but for the defendant’s conduct, would the harm have happened? Legal causation asks whether the defendant’s act was a substantial and operating cause, with no intervening event breaking the chain.
事实因果关系问：如果没有被告的行为，损害是否会发生？法律因果关系问：被告的行为是否是一个实质性且在起作用的原因，并且没有介入事件打断因果链。
3. Mens Rea Levels | 犯罪意图等级
Mens rea is not one single state of mind. WJEC questions often ask you to identify the exact level required for a specific offence.
犯罪意图不是单一心理状态。WJEC 题目常要求你识别特定犯罪所需的精确等级。
- Intention: aim or purpose | 故意：目的或目标
- Recklessness: knowing a risk and going ahead | 轻率：知道风险仍然继续
- Negligence: falling below the reasonable person standard | 过失：低于合理人标准
- Strict liability: no mens rea needed | 严格责任：无需犯罪意图
Specific offence = Actus reus + Required mens rea (± strict liability exception)
Intention is the highest fault level and is needed for offences such as theft. Recklessness is enough for many criminal damage offences. Strict liability offences are usually regulatory and require proof of the act only.
故意是最高等级的过错，盗窃等犯罪需要故意。许多刑事损坏犯罪只需要轻率。严格责任犯罪通常是监管性犯罪，只需证明行为本身。
4. Non-fatal Offences: Assault and Battery | 非致命犯罪：企图伤害与殴打
Assault and battery are separate common law offences. Assault is causing the victim to fear immediate unlawful force; battery is the actual application of unlawful force.
企图伤害和殴打是两种独立的普通法犯罪。企图伤害是使被害人恐惧即将发生的非法武力；殴打是实际施加非法武力。
Assault = Intention/recklessness + Victim apprehends immediate unlawful force
Battery = Intention/recklessness + Application of unlawful force
No physical contact is required for assault; words alone can sometimes be enough. For battery, the touching can be indirect, for example by throwing an object at the victim.
企图伤害不需要身体接触；有时言语本身就足够。对殴打而言，接触可以是间接的，例如向被害人投掷物品。
5. Theft and Property Offences | 盗窃与财产犯罪
Theft is defined by section 1 Theft Act 1968 and contains five elements. All five must be present at the same time.
盗窃由 1968 年《盗窃法》第 1 条定义，包含五个要素。五个要素必须同时具备。
Dishonesty + Appropriation + Property + Belonging to another + Intention to permanently deprive = Theft
Appropriation includes assuming any right of the owner. Property includes money and personal items but not land in most cases. Intention to permanently deprive means treating the property as your own.
占取包括行使所有人的任何权利。财产包括金钱和个人物品，但大多数情况下不包括土地。永久剥夺意图是指将财产当作自己的来处置。
Robbery = Theft + Force or threat of force
Burglary = Entry + Building + As trespasser + Ulterior offence
Robbery requires a completed theft and the use or threat of force immediately before or at the time of the theft. Burglary can be committed by entering a building as a trespasser with intent to steal, cause grievous bodily harm or commit unlawful damage.
抢劫要求盗窃已经完成，并且在盗窃前或盗窃时立即使用或威胁使用武力。入室盗窃是指作为侵入者进入建筑物，意图盗窃、造成严重身体伤害或非法损坏。
6. Homicide Rules: Murder and Manslaughter | 杀人罪规则：谋杀与过失杀人
Murder is a common law offence with a fixed actus reus and mens rea. Manslaughter covers unlawful killings that lack the malice aforethought required for murder.
谋杀是一项普通法犯罪，有固定的犯罪行为和犯罪意图。过失杀人涵盖缺乏谋杀所需恶意预谋的非法杀人行为。
Murder = Unlawful killing + Human being + Queen’s peace + Malice aforethought
Voluntary manslaughter = Murder + Partial defence (diminished responsibility or loss of control)
Malice aforethought means intention to kill or intention to cause grievous bodily harm. A partial defence reduces murder to voluntary manslaughter but does not lead to acquittal.
恶意预谋是指杀人故意或造成严重身体伤害的故意。部分抗辩将谋杀减轻为自愿过失杀人，但不会导致无罪释放。
7. General Defences in Criminal Law | 刑法一般抗辩
A defence either negates an element of the offence or excuses the defendant’s conduct. Common general defences include self-defence, duress, necessity, insanity, automatism and intoxication.
抗辩要么否定犯罪的一个要素，要么免除被告行为的责任。常见的一般抗辩包括自卫、胁迫、紧急避险、精神错乱、自动症和醉酒。
Criminal liability − Valid defence = Acquittal or reduced liability
Self-defence is available where the force used was necessary and reasonable. Duress applies when the defendant was forced by threats of death or serious injury. Intoxication is usually not a defence to basic intent crimes.
如果使用的武力是必要且合理的，可以使用自卫。当被告因死亡或严重伤害威胁而被迫行事时，可以适用胁迫。醉酒通常不能作为基本故意犯罪的抗辩。
8. Negligence in Tort | 侵权法中的过失责任
In tort law, the claimant must establish the tort of negligence by proving four elements: duty, breach, causation and damage.
在侵权法中，索赔人必须通过证明四个要素来确立过失侵权：义务、违反、因果关系和损害。
Duty + Breach + Causation + Damage = Negligence
Duty is owed to a neighbour: anyone who can reasonably be foreseen as affected by your act. Breach uses the reasonable person test. Causation uses the ‘but for’ test and remoteness of damage.
义务是对邻人承担的：任何可以合理预见受你行为影响的人。违反采用合理人标准。因果关系采用 “but for” 检验和损害的远隔性规则。
9. Contract Formation Formula | 合同成立公式
A binding contract requires offer, acceptance, consideration and intention to create legal relations. If any element is missing, there is no enforceable agreement.
有约束力的合同需要要约、承诺、对价和设立法律关系的意图。任何要素缺失，就不存在可强制执行的协议。
Offer + Acceptance + Consideration + Intention = Binding contract
An offer must be distinguished from an invitation to treat, such as goods on a shop shelf. Acceptance must be communicated and unconditional. Consideration is something of value exchanged between the parties.
要约必须与要约邀请区分，例如货架上的商品属于要约邀请。承诺必须通知且无条件。对价是双方之间交换的有价值之物。
10. Statutory Interpretation and Precedent | 法律解释与判例
Judges interpret statutes using four main rules: literal, golden, mischief and purposive. Judicial precedent operates through ratio decidendi and obiter dicta.
法官使用四种主要规则解释成文法：字面规则、黄金规则、填补漏洞规则和目的性规则。司法判例通过判决理由和附带意见运作。
Literal rule = Ordinary meaning of words
Golden rule = Literal meaning modified to avoid absurdity
Mischief rule = Identify the defect the statute intended to cure
Purposive rule = Give effect to the law’s broader purpose
In precedent, the ratio decidendi is binding on lower courts; obiter dicta is persuasive only. The court hierarchy decides which precedents bind which courts.
在判例中，判决理由对下级法院有约束力；附带意见仅具有说服力。法院层级决定哪些判例约束哪些法院。
11. The Court Hierarchy and Appeals | 法院层级与上诉
The doctrine of precedent depends on hierarchy. Supreme Court decisions bind all lower courts; Court of Appeal decisions
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