IGCSE WJEC Philosophy: Formula and Theorem Quick-Reference Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 哲学：公式定理速查手册

📚 IGCSE WJEC Philosophy: Formula and Theorem Quick-Reference Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 哲学：公式定理速查手册

In philosophy, a ‘formula’ is not an equation of numbers but a precise pattern of reasoning. This handbook condenses key arguments and principles from the IGCSE WJEC Philosophy course into memorable formulas, theorem-like statements, and quick checks.

在哲学中，’公式’不是数字方程，而是精确的推理模式。本手册将 IGCSE WJEC 哲学课程中的核心论证与原则浓缩为易记的公式、定理式陈述和快速检查清单。

1. Logic: Argument Formulas | 逻辑：论证公式

Use these logical forms to test any argument. An argument is valid if the conclusion must be true when the premises are true. Soundness adds the requirement that the premises are actually true.

使用以下逻辑形式检验任何论证。如果前提为真时结论必然为真，则论证有效。可靠性则另外要求前提本身为真。

Modus Ponens: P → Q; P; ∴ Q.
Modus Tollens: P → Q; ¬Q; ∴ ¬P.

Watch for fallacies: affirming the consequent (P → Q; Q; ∴ P) is invalid; denying the antecedent (P → Q; ¬P; ∴ ¬Q) is invalid.

注意谬误：肯定后件（P → Q；Q；∴ P）无效；否定前件（P → Q；¬P；∴ ¬Q）无效。

2. Epistemology: Knowledge Formula | 知识论：知识公式

The traditional knowledge formula is Justified True Belief (JTB). A person S knows a proposition p if and only if p is true, S believes p, and S is justified in believing p.

传统知识公式是 ‘得到辩护的真信念’（JTB）。某人 S 知道命题 p，当且仅当 p 为真、S 相信 p，并且 S 相信 p 是有辩护的。

S knows that p ↔ (p is true ∧ S believes p ∧ S is justified in believing p)

Gettier cases show JTB is insufficient unless we add a ‘no luck’ condition or no false lemmas. In an exam, define

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