IGCSE WJEC Psychology Formula & Theorem Quick Revision Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 心理学公式定理速查手册

📚 IGCSE WJEC Psychology Formula & Theorem Quick Revision Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 心理学公式定理速查手册

This quick revision handbook summarises the key formulas, models and theorems in IGCSE WJEC Psychology. Use it to test recall of core relationships across memory, learning, social influence, attachment, cognitive development and research methods. Each section pairs an English statement with a Chinese parallel so you can revise bilingually.

本速查手册总结 IGCSE WJEC 心理学的关键公式、模型与定理。可用于检测记忆、学习、社会影响、依恋、认知发展和研究方法等核心关系的回忆。每节以英文与中文配对呈现，便于双语复习。

1. Multi-Store Model of Memory | 记忆多存储模型

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) describe memory as a flow of information through three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. The core sequence is shown below.

阿特金森和希夫林（1968）将记忆描述为信息流经三个独立存储：感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。核心顺序如下所示。

Environmental stimuli → Sensory memory → Attention → Short-term memory → Rehearsal → Long-term memory

Sensory memory has a very large capacity but a duration of only about 0.5 seconds for visual information.

感觉记忆容量很大，但视觉信息的持续时间仅约 0.5 秒。

Short-term memory capacity is 7 ± 2 items, according to Miller (1956), and its duration is about 18–30 seconds without rehearsal.

根据米勒（1956），短时记忆容量为 7±2 个项目，无复述时持续时间约 18–30 秒。

Long-term memory capacity is effectively unlimited and its duration can be permanent if retrieval cues are available.

长时记忆容量实际上是无限的，如果有提取线索，其持续时间可以是永久的。

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2. Working Memory Model | 工作记忆模型

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed that short-term memory is not a single store but a working memory system with several components. The main structure is summarised by this formula.

巴德利和希奇（1974）提出短时记忆不是单一存储，而是一个由多个成分组成的工作记忆系统。主要结构可由以下公式概括。

Central Executive + Phonological Loop + Visuospatial Sketchpad + Episodic Buffer → Working Memory

The central executive allocates attention and coordinates the two slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad.

中央执行系统分配注意并协调两个从属系统：语音环路和视觉空间画板。

The phonological loop stores speech-based information for about 2 seconds; the visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information.

语音环路储存言语信息约 2 秒；视觉空间画板储存视觉和空间信息。

The episodic buffer integrates information from the slave systems and long-term memory into a coherent episode.

情景缓冲区将来自从属系统和长时记忆的信息整合为一个连贯的情景。

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3. Forgetting: Decay and Interference | 遗忘：消退与干扰

Forgetting in short-term and long-term memory can be explained by trace decay and interference. The revision formula brings these causes together.

短时记忆和长时记忆中的遗忘可以用痕迹消退和干扰来解释。复习公式将这些原因归纳在一起。

Forgetting = Trace Decay + Proactive Interference + Retroactive Interference

Trace decay means that a memory trace fades over time if the information is not rehearsed, especially in short-term memory.

痕迹消退指如果信息未被复述，记忆痕迹会随时间消退，尤其在短时记忆中。

Proactive interference occurs when old learning blocks the recall of new information; retroactive interference occurs when new learning blocks the recall of old information.

前摄干扰指旧学习阻碍新信息的回忆；倒摄干扰指新学习阻碍旧信息的回忆。

In WJEC exam questions, remember that interference is strongest when two sets of information are similar.

在 WJEC 考试题中，需记住当两组信息相似时干扰作用最强。

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4. Classical Conditioning | 经典条件反射

Pavlov (1927) demonstrated that a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. The conditioning equations are shown below.

巴甫洛夫（1927）证明，中性刺激通过与无条件刺激反复配对可变成条件刺激。条件反射方程如下所示。

Before conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) → Unconditioned Response (UCR)

During conditioning: Neutral Stimulus (NS) + Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) → Unconditioned Response (UCR)

After conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus (CS) → Conditioned Response (CR)

In Pavlov’s experiment, food was the UCS, salivation was the UCR, the bell became the CS, and salivation in response to the bell was the CR.

在巴甫洛夫实验中，食物是无条件刺激，唾液分泌是无条件反应，铃声成为条件刺激，对铃声的唾液分泌是条件反应。

Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS; spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause.

消退发生在条件刺激反复单独出现而无条件刺激时；自然恢复是减弱后的条件反应在停顿后再次出现。

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5. Operant Conditioning | 操作性条件反射

Skinner (1938) showed that behaviour is controlled by its consequences. The basic theorem of operant conditioning can be written as follows.

斯金纳（1938）证明行为由其后效控制。操作性条件反射的基本定理可写作如下形式。

Behaviour → Consequence → Future Behaviour Probability Increases or Decreases

Positive reinforcement means adding a pleasant consequence, which makes behaviour more likely to be repeated.

正强化指增加愉快后效，使行为更可能重复。

Negative reinforcement means removing an unpleasant consequence, which also makes behaviour more likely to be repeated; it is not punishment.

负强化指移除不愉快后效，也使得行为更可能重复；它不是惩罚。

Punishment means adding an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one, which makes behaviour less likely to be repeated.

惩罚指增加不愉快后效或移除愉快后效，使行为不太可能重复。

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6. Social Learning Theory | 社会学习理论

Bandura (1977) proposed that people learn by observing models. The four mediational processes form the ARRM formula.

班杜拉（1977）提出人们通过观察榜样进行学习。四个中介过程构成 ARRM 公式。

Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation → Imitation

Attention means the learner must notice the model; retention means storing a mental representation of the behaviour.

注意指学习者必须注意到榜样；保持指储存行为的心理表征。

Reproduction is the physical ability to perform the behaviour; motivation is the desire to imitate, often influenced by vicarious reinforcement.

再现指执行行为的身体能力；动机指模仿的愿望，通常受替代性强化的影响。

In the Bobo doll study, children who observed an aggressive adult were more likely to imitate physical and verbal aggression.

在波波娃娃研究中，观察到攻击性成人的儿童更可能模仿身体和言语攻击行为。

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7. Conformity and Obedience | 从众与服从

Social influence can be summarised by formulas linking situational factors to conformity and obedience. The main conformity equation is shown first.

社会影响可以通过将情境因素与从众和服从联系起来的公式来总结。首先展示主要从众公式。

Conformity = Normative Influence + Informational Influence + Group Size + Unanimity + Task Difficulty

Normative influence is the desire to be liked; informational influence is the desire to be right when the task is ambiguous.

规范影响指希望被喜欢的愿望；信息影响指当任务模糊时希望正确的愿望。

Asch (1951) found that conformity on critical line judgement trials was about 32%, and it increased with group size up to around four confederates and with a unanimous majority.

阿希（1951）发现线段判断关键试验中的从众率约为 32%，且在群体规模达约 4 名同谋且多数一致时从众增加。

Milgram (1963) found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure up to 450 volts, showing that obedience is affected by authority legitimacy, proximity and personal responsibility.

米尔格拉姆（1963）发现 65% 的参与者服从权威人物直至 450 伏，表明服从受权威合法性、接近性和个人责任感影响。

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8. Attachment | 依恋

Bowlby and Ainsworth explain attachment formation and quality. A simplified attachment equation links caregiver behaviour to attachment type.

鲍尔比和安斯沃思解释依恋的形成和质量。简化的依恋方程将看护者行为与依恋类型联系起来。

Sensitive Responsiveness → Secure Attachment → Positive Internal Working Model

Bowlby (1969) argued that attachment is adaptive and that an infant forms one primary attachment, or monotropy, during a critical period.

鲍尔比（1969）认为依恋是适应性的，婴儿在关键期内形成一种主要依恋，即单一依恋。

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation identified three main attachment types: secure about 65–70%, insecure-avoidant about 20%, and insecure-resistant about 10–15%.

安斯沃思的陌生情境识别出三种主要依恋类型：安全型约 65–70%，不安全-回避型约 20%，不安全-反抗型约 10–15%。

The internal working model is a mental template for future relationships based on the first attachment relationship.

内部工作模型是基于第一个依恋关系形成的未来人际关系心理模板。

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9. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is organised into four age-related stages. The stage sequence is the key revision formula.

皮亚杰的认知发展理论分为四个与年龄相关的阶段。阶段顺序是关键复习公式。

0–2 years: Sensorimotor → 2–7 years: Preoperational → 7–11 years: Concrete Operational → 11+ years: Formal Operational

In the sensorimotor stage, the key achievement is object permanence, understanding that objects exist when out of sight.

在感知运动阶段，关键成就是客体永久性，即理解物体在看不见时仍然存在。

In the preoperational stage, children show egocentrism, animism and a lack of conservation; in the concrete operational stage, they master conservation and logical operations on concrete objects.

在前运算阶段，儿童表现出自我中心、泛灵论和缺乏守恒；在具体运算阶段，他们掌握守恒和对具体事物的逻辑运算。

The formal operational stage brings abstract reasoning and hypothetical-deductive thinking, enabling scientific problem solving.

形式运算阶段带来抽象推理和假设演绎思维，使科学问题解决成为可能。

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10. Research Methods and Data Formulae | 研究方法与数据公式

WJEC IGCSE Psychology requires calculation of descriptive statistics. These are the most important data formulas for the exam.

WJEC IGCSE 心理学要求计算描述性统计。以下是考试最重要的数据公式。

Mean = Σx ÷ N

Median = middle value in order

Mode = most frequent value

Range = maximum value − minimum value

Percentage change = (new value − old value) ÷ old value × 100%

The mean is the arithmetic average and uses all data, but it is easily distorted by outliers. The median is unaffected by extreme scores and is better for skewed data.

平均数是算术平均值并使用了所有数据，但容易被极端值扭曲。中位数不受极端分数影响，更适用于偏态数据。

The mode is useful for categorical data, and the range gives a simple measure of spread, though it only uses the two extreme values.

众数适用于分类数据，全距给出简单的离散度测量，但它只使用两个极端值。

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11. Experimental Design and Variables | 实验设计与变量

Experiments test cause and effect by manipulating an independent variable and measuring a dependent variable. The basic relationship is shown below.

实验通过操纵自变量并测量因变量来检验因果关系。基本关系如下所示。

Independent Variable (IV) → Dependent Variable (DV)

An experimental hypothesis can be written as: if the IV changes, then the DV changes, with a direction for a directional hypothesis.

实验假设可写为：如果自变量改变，则因变量改变，方向性假设需指明方向。

Extraneous variables are uncontrolled factors that could affect the DV; confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the IV.

无关变量是可能影响因变量的未控制因素；混淆变量是与自变量系统变化的因素。

Independent groups design uses different participants in each condition; repeated measures uses the same participants; matched pairs pairs participants on key characteristics.

独立组设计在不同条件下使用

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