📚 Bismarck’s Germany 1871–90 | 俾斯麦时期的德国 1871–90
Bismarck’s Germany refers to the German Empire under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck from unification in 1871 until his dismissal in 1890. This period was shaped by the creation of a Prussian-dominated constitutional order, the so-called struggle against internal ‘enemies of the Reich’, pioneering social welfare legislation, and a careful alliance system designed to keep France isolated.
俾斯麦时期的德国指1871年统一至1890年俾斯麦被解职期间由首相奥托·冯·俾斯麦主导的德意志帝国。这一时期深受普鲁士主导的宪政秩序、针对所谓 “帝国敌人” 的内部斗争、开创性的社会福利立法以及旨在孤立法国的谨慎同盟体系的影响。
1. The Foundation of the German Empire, 1871 | 1871年德意志帝国的建立
The German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles on 18 January 1871, following Prussia’s victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War. Wilhelm I of Prussia became German Emperor, and the new state followed the Kleindeutschland solution, excluding Austria from German affairs and ensuring Prussian dominance.
德意志帝国于1871年1月18日在凡尔赛宫镜厅宣告成立，此前普鲁士在普法战争中战胜法国。普鲁士国王威廉一世成为德意志皇帝，新国家采用 “小德意志方案”，将奥地利排除在德意志事务之外，从而确保普鲁士的主导地位。
The Treaty of Frankfurt in May 1871 forced France to cede Alsace-Lorraine and pay an indemnity of five billion francs. This territorial loss created a deep sense of French revanchism, which Bismarck would spend the next two decades attempting to contain through diplomatic isolation.
1871年5月的《法兰克福条约》迫使法国割让阿尔萨斯-洛林并支付50亿法郎赔款。这一领土损失造成了强烈的法国复仇情绪，俾斯麦在接下来的二十年里一直试图通过外交孤立来遏制这种情绪。
2. The Constitution of 1871: A Prussian-Dominated Federal State | 1871年宪法：普鲁士主导的联邦国家
The imperial constitution created a federal state of 25 individual states, but Prussia held a dominant position. The King of Prussia was hereditary German Emperor, with control over foreign policy, command of the armed forces, the power to dismiss the Reichstag, and the authority to appoint the chancellor.
帝国宪法建立了一个由25个邦组成的联邦国家，但普鲁士占据主导地位。普鲁士国王是世袭的德意志皇帝，掌控外交政策、军队指挥权，有权解散帝国议会，并负责任命首相。
The Bundesrat, the upper house, had 58 seats, of which Prussia held 17. Since 14 votes were required to block constitutional amendments, Prussia could effectively veto any change. The Reichstag, the lower house, was elected by universal male suffrage for men over 25 and could approve the budget and legislation, but it could not remove the chancellor, who was responsible to the emperor rather than to parliament.
联邦参议院作为上院有58个席位，其中普鲁士占17席。由于需要14票才能否决宪法修正案，普鲁士实际上可以阻止任何修宪。帝国议会作为下院由25岁以上男性普选产生，可以批准预算和法律，但不能罢免首相，首相对皇帝而非议会负责。
- The Emperor controlled foreign policy, the army and the appointment of the chancellor. 皇帝掌控外交、军队和首相任命。
- Prussia held 17 of 58 Bundesrat seats and could veto constitutional change. 普鲁士在联邦参议院58席中占17席，可否决修宪。
- The Reichstag was elected by universal male suffrage but lacked control over the executive. 帝国议会由男性普选产生，但无法控制行政机关。
3. Political Parties and the Reichstag | 政党与帝国议会
The main political forces in the new empire included the Conservatives, representing Prussian Junkers and agrarian interests; the National Liberals, who supported national unity and initially favoured free trade; the Catholic Centre Party, known as the Zentrum; and the Social Democratic Party, formed in 1875 through the Gotha merger of Marxist groups.
新帝国的主要政治力量包括代表普鲁士容克地主和农业利益的保守党；支持国家统一并最初拥护自由贸易的民族自由党；天主教中央党（Zentrum）；以及1875年通过哥达合并形成的马克思主义政党社会民主党。
Bismarck regarded the Zentrum and the Social Democrats as Reichsfeinde, or internal enemies of the state. He believed Catholics owed loyalty to the pope rather than to the German nation, while socialists were loyal to an international proletariat. He worked closely with the National Liberals for much of the 1870s, but that cooperation weakened after the tariff shift of 1879.
俾斯麦将中央党和社会民主党视为 “帝国敌人”，即国家的内部敌人。他认为天主教徒效忠教皇而非德意志民族，社会主义者则忠诚于国际无产阶级。他在19世纪70年代大部分时间与民族自由党密切合作，但这种合作在1879年关税转向后逐渐减弱。
4. The Kulturkampf, 1871–78 | 文化斗争（1871–78）
The Kulturkampf was Bismarck’s conflict with the Catholic Church, driven by fears that Catholics, who made up about one third of the population, owed divided loyalty to the pope. Pope Pius IX’s Syllabus of Errors had rejected liberal ideas such as separation of church and state, and Catholic Poles in the eastern provinces added a national minority dimension to the dispute.
文化斗争是俾斯麦与天主教会的冲突，原因是担心占帝国人口约三分之一的天主教徒对教皇和国家的忠诚是分裂的。教皇庇护九世的《谬论要录》拒绝政教分离等自由主义思想，而东部省份的波兰天主教徒又为这场斗争增添了少数民族问题的色彩。
Legislation included the pulpit paragraph of 1871, which forbade clergy from making political statements in sermons; the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1872; and the May Laws of 1873, which placed clerical education and appointments under state supervision and introduced civil marriage.
相关立法包括1871年的布道条款，禁止神职人员在讲道中发表政治言论；1872年驱逐耶稣会士；以及1873年的五月法令，将神职教育和任命置于国家监督之下，并引入民事婚姻制度。
The policy largely failed. Catholics rallied around the Zentrum, which grew into the largest party, and passive resistance in many regions forced Bismarck to retreat. From the late 1870s he began to repeal the laws, partly because he needed Zentrum support for protectionist tariffs and the Anti-Socialist Laws.
该政策基本失败。天主教徒团结在中央党周围，中央党壮大为最大政党，许多地区的消极抵抗迫使俾斯麦后退。从19世纪70年代末起，他开始废除这些法律，部分原因是他需要中央党支持保护性关税和反社会党人法。
5. The Anti-Socialist Laws, 1878–90 | 反社会党人法（1878–90）
After two assassination attempts on Wilhelm I in 1878, Bismarck used public fear to pass the Anti-Socialist Laws, banning socialist organisations, meetings and publications. Social Democrats could still stand for election as individuals, but their party apparatus was declared illegal.
在1878年威廉一世两次遭遇刺杀后，俾斯麦利用公众恐惧通过了反社会党人法，禁止社会主义组织、集会和出版物。社会民主党人仍可以作为个人参加选举，但其政党组织被宣布为非法。
The laws forced the Social Democratic Party underground, but they did not destroy it. The SPD adapted by spreading pamphlets abroad and organising through trade unions. Its vote rose from about 312,000 in 1881 to over 1.4 million in 1890, making the SPD the largest party in the Reichstag.
这些法律迫使社会民主党转入地下，但未能将其摧毁。社民党通过在海外传播小册子和借助工会组织进行适应。其选票从1881年的约31.2万张增加到1890年的超过140万张，使社民党成为帝国议会中最大的政党。
Bismarck combined repression with welfare measures, hoping to weaken workers’ attachment to socialism. However, the policy ultimately strengthened socialist solidarity and identified the state as narrowly hostile to the working class.
俾斯麦将镇压与福利措施结合起来，希望削弱工人对社会主义的支持。然而，这一政策最终加强了社会主义者的团结，并使国家被认定对工人阶级持狭隘敌视态度。
6. State Socialism and Social Welfare Reforms | 国家社会主义与社会福利改革
Between 1883 and 1889 Bismarck introduced the world’s first comprehensive national welfare system. The Sickness Insurance Act of 1883 provided compulsory health insurance for workers, the Accident Insurance Act of 1884 covered industrial injuries, and the Old-Age and Invalidity Insurance Act of 1889 introduced pensions.
1883年至1889年间，俾斯麦建立了世界上第一个全面的国家福利制度。1883年的疾病保险法为工人提供强制性医疗保险，1884年的意外保险法覆盖工伤，1889年的老年与残疾保险法引入养老金制度。
The motives were partly conservative and paternalistic: Bismarck aimed to reduce the appeal of socialism by showing that the state, not revolutionary parties, could improve workers’ lives. The reforms were funded by contributions from workers, employers and the state, but coverage remained limited and excluded many agricultural labourers.
这些改革的动机部分是保守和家长式的：俾斯麦希望通过展示国家而非革命政党能够改善工人生活，来削弱社会主义的吸引力。改革资金来自工人、雇主和国家三方缴费，但覆盖范围仍然有限，许多农业劳动者未被纳入。
| Year 年份 | Legislation 立法 | Main provision 主要内容 |
|---|---|---|
| 1883 | Sickness Insurance Act 疾病保险法 | Compulsory health insurance for workers 工人强制医疗保险 |
| 1884 | Accident Insurance Act 意外保险法 | Coverage for industrial accidents 工伤保障 |
| 1889 | Old-Age and Invalidity Insurance Act 老年与残疾保险法 | Pensions for elderly and disabled workers 老年与残疾工人养老金 |
7. Economic Change and Protectionism | 经济变革与保护主义
The rapid speculative boom after unification collapsed in the Gründerkrach of 1873, leading to falling
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