Employment and Unemployment | 就业与失业

📚 Employment and Unemployment | 就业与失业

In IGCSE Economics, employment and unemployment are central topics. The unemployment rate is one of the most important indicators of how well an economy is performing. High unemployment means that scarce resources, especially human resources, are being wasted, and it brings serious social costs. To analyse unemployment properly, we need to understand how it is measured, why it happens, and what governments can do about it.

在 IGCSE 经济学中，就业与失业是核心专题。失业率是衡量经济健康状况最重要的指标之一。高失业率意味着稀缺资源，尤其是人力资源，正在被浪费，并且会带来严重的社会成本。要正确分析失业，我们需要理解失业的衡量方法、产生原因以及政府可以采取的应对措施。

1. The Labour Force | 劳动力

In economics, the labour force, also called the working population, is defined as people who are both able and willing to work. It includes those in paid employment and those who are actively seeking work. People who are not seeking work, such as full-time students, retired people, stay-at-home parents, and those who have given up looking for a job, are outside the labour force and are classified as economically inactive.

在经济学中，劳动力又称工作人口，被定义为既有能力又愿意工作的人。它包括从事有酬工作的人和正在积极寻找工作的人。不找工作的人，如全日制学生、退休人员、全职照顾家庭者以及放弃找工作的人，都不在劳动力之内，被归类为非经济活动人口。

Employment refers to the number of people who currently have a job. Unemployment refers to people who are willing and able to work at the going market wage rate but cannot find work. A person must be actively looking for a job to be counted as unemployed; otherwise they are not part of the labour force at all.

就业指目前有工作的人数。失业指那些愿意并且能够在现行市场工资率下工作，却找不到工作的人。一个人必须正在积极寻找工作，才会被计入失业；否则他们根本不算劳动力的一部分。

Unemployment rate = (Number of unemployed ÷ Labour force) × 100

2. Measuring Unemployment | 衡量失业

There are two main measures of unemployment. The Claimant Count records the number of workers who claim unemployment-related benefits from the government. The Labour Force Survey estimates unemployment by interviewing a large sample of households and applying an internationally agreed definition of unemployment. The survey is usually considered more accurate because some unemployed people do not claim benefits, and some claimants may be working in the hidden economy.

失业主要有两种衡量方法。“申领者人数”统计向政府申领失业相关福利的人数。“劳动力调查”则通过调查大规模住户样本，并使用国际公认的失业定义来估算失业。调查通常被认为更准确，因为有些失业者不申领福利，而有些申领者可能在“隐性经济”中工作。

Both measures have limitations. Official figures may understate unemployment because they ignore ‘hidden unemployment’: discouraged workers who have stopped searching, underemployed workers who want more hours, and people on government training schemes who are not counted. On the other hand, the Claimant Count may overstate unemployment if people claim benefits while working informally. In the exam, you should be able to comment on the reliability of unemployment statistics.

这两种衡量方法都有局限性。官方数据可能低估失业，因为它们忽略了“隐性失业”：如灰心失业者、希望增加工时的非充分就业者，以及参加政府培训计划因而未被计入的人。另一方面，“申领者人数”可能高估失业，因为有人一边领取福利一边从事非正式工作。在考试中，你应该能够评价失业统计数据的可靠性。

3. Frictional Unemployment | 摩擦性失业

Frictional unemployment occurs when workers are temporarily unemployed while moving between jobs, or when new entrants, such as school leavers, are searching for their first job. It is caused by imperfect information in the labour market: workers do not know all the job vacancies available, and employers do not know all the suitable workers looking for work. This type of unemployment is usually short-term and is inevitable in a changing economy.

摩擦性失业发生在工人更换工作期间暂时失业，或如离校毕业生等新进入者在寻找第一份工作之时。其原因在于劳动力市场中存在不完全信息：工人并不了解所有职位空缺，雇主也不了解所有正在找工作的合适人选。这类失业通常是短期的，在变化的经济中不可避免。

Frictional unemployment can be reduced by improving the flow of job information. Job centres, online recruitment websites, and careers guidance help match workers with vacancies more quickly, lowering the time spent between jobs. Some economists argue that very low frictional unemployment is actually healthy, as it reflects a dynamic labour market.

摩擦性失业可以通过改善职位信息流动来降低。就业中心、在线招聘网站和职业指导有助于更快地将工人与职位匹配，从而缩短换工作之间的时间。一些经济学家认为，极低的摩擦性失业实际上是健康的，因为它反映了劳动力市场的活力。

4. Structural Unemployment | 结构性失业

Structural unemployment is a long-term type of unemployment that arises from changes in the structure of the economy. It occurs when a major industry declines, new technology replaces workers, or consumer tastes change, so that the skills or locations of workers no longer match available job vacancies. This is called occupational immobility or geographical immobility of labour.

结构性失业是由经济结构变化引起的长期失业。当某个重要行业衰退、新技术取代工人，或消费者偏好改变时，工人的技能或所在地与现有职位不再匹配，就会出现结构性失业。这被称为劳动力的职业流动性差或地域流动性差。

For example, the decline of coal mining and shipbuilding in the United Kingdom left many workers unemployed, while new jobs appeared in finance and technology in London and other cities. The affected workers could not easily move or retrain, so they stayed unemployed for long periods. Reducing structural unemployment requires supply-side policies such as education and training, housing and transport improvements, and support for regional regeneration.

例如，英国煤矿业和造船业的衰退令许多工人失业，而金融和科技行业的新岗位出现在伦敦及其他城市。受影响的工人无法轻易迁移或接受再培训，因此长期处于失业状态。减少结构性失业需要供给侧政策，如教育培训、住房与交通改善，以及对区域振兴的支持。

5. Cyclical Unemployment | 周期性失业

Cyclical unemployment, also called demand-deficient unemployment, is caused by a fall in aggregate demand. During a recession, consumers spend less and firms reduce output, so they lay off workers. Cyclical unemployment is linked to the business cycle: it rises during downturns and falls during booms. It is the main type of unemployment associated with a negative output gap.

周期性失业又称需求不足型失业，由总需求下降引起。在衰退期间，消费者减少支出，企业削减产出，于是裁员。周期性失业与经济周期密切相关：它在经济下行时上升，在经济繁荣时下降。它也是与负产出缺口相关的主要失业类型。

To reduce cyclical unemployment, governments and central banks can use expansionary demand-side policies. Fiscal policy can cut taxes or raise government spending, while monetary policy can lower interest rates to encourage borrowing, investment, and spending. Higher aggregate demand leads to higher output and more jobs. However, such policies may create demand-pull inflation if the economy is already close to full capacity.

为减少周期性失业，政府和中央银行可以使用扩张性需求侧政策。财政政策可以减税或增加政府支出，而货币政策可以降低利率，以鼓励借贷、投资和支出。总需求提高会带动产出增加、就业增加。然而，如果经济已接近产出上限，这类政策可能引发需求拉动型通货膨胀。

6. Seasonal and Classical Unemployment | 季节性失业与古典失业

Seasonal unemployment occurs when the demand for labour changes at different times of the year. The tourism industry, agriculture, and construction are common examples. In winter, seaside resorts and building sites may close, so workers are unemployed until the next season. This type of unemployment is predictable and often temporary.

季节性失业发生在一年中不同时间对劳动力需求变化时。旅游业、农业和建筑业是典型例子。冬季，海滨度假胜地和建筑工地可能关闭，工人在下一个旺季到来之前处于失业状态。这种失业可预测，且通常是暂时的。

Classical unemployment, also known as real-wage unemployment, occurs when real wages are forced above the market-clearing level. At a higher wage, the quantity of labour supplied exceeds the quantity demanded, creating a surplus of workers. Causes include strong trade unions, minimum wage legislation, and efficiency wages paid by firms to raise productivity.

古典失业又称实际工资失业，发生在实际工资被人为推高到市场出清水平之上时。在较高工资下，劳动力供给量超过需求量，从而产生工人剩余。其原因包括强大的工会、最低工资立法，以及企业为提高生产率而支付的效率工资。

If real wage (W) > equilibrium wage (W*), then labour supply > labour demand → unemployment

7. Causes of Unemployment: A Summary | 失业原因总结

Unemployment is not a single problem; different causes require different solutions. A useful way to test your understanding is to compare the main types of unemployment, their causes, and typical examples.

失业并不是一个单一的问题；不同的成因需要不同的解决方案。检验理解的一个好方法，是比较失业的主要类型、成因和典型例子。

Frictional unemployment: caused by time spent searching for a new job, due to imperfect information.

摩擦性失业：因不完全信息而花费时间寻找新工作所导致。
Structural unemployment: caused by declining industries, technological change, and skills mismatch.

结构性失业：由行业衰退、技术变革和技能错配引起。
Cyclical unemployment: caused by low aggregate demand during a recession.

周期性失业：由衰退期间总需求不足引起。
Seasonal unemployment: caused by changes in demand for labour across the year.

季节性失业：由一年中劳动力需求变化引起。
Classical unemployment: caused by real wages above the market-clearing level.

古典失业：由实际工资高于市场出清水平引起。

8. Economic Consequences of Unemployment | 失业的经济后果

High unemployment involves a serious waste of economic resources. Unemployed workers produce no output, so the economy operates inside its production possibility frontier. This is a lost opportunity: goods and services could have been produced with the same resources. The longer unemployment persists, the greater the cumulative loss of national income.

高失业涉及严重的经济资源浪费。失业者不产出，因此经济在生产可能性边界之内运行。这是一种机会损失：用同样的资源本可以生产更多的商品和服务。失业持续越久，国民收入损失的累积效应就越大。

Unemployment also affects the government budget. The government loses tax revenue from income tax and indirect taxes, while spending more on unemployment benefits, housing support, and health services. This can lead to a larger budget deficit, forcing the government to borrow or to raise taxes in the future.

失业也会影响政府预算。政府损失所得税和间接税收入，同时需要在失业救济、住房补贴和医疗服务上增加支出。这可能导致预算赤字扩大，迫使政府未来借债或增税。

There is also a multiplier effect

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Employment and Unemployment | 就业与失业