📚 Main Ideas of the Anarchical Society and Society of States Theory | 无政府社会与国家社会理论的核心思想
The anarchical society is one of the most influential concepts in the English School of International Relations, developed most fully by Hedley Bull in his 1977 book The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. It explains how sovereign states, living in a system without a supreme authority, can nevertheless create a stable and ordered society based on shared rules, interests and institutions.
无政府社会是国际关系英国学派中最具影响力的概念之一，赫德利·布尔在1977年出版的《无政府社会：世界政治秩序研究》中对其进行了最充分的阐述。它解释了主权国家在一个没有最高权威的体系中，如何仍然能够基于共同的规则、利益和制度，创造出稳定有序的社会。
1. Intellectual Origins and Key Thinkers | 思想渊源与关键思想家
The idea of an international society has deep roots in natural law and Grotian thought. Hugo Grotius argued that even in a world of sovereign states, there exists a society bound by law and mutual obligation. Later, Martin Wight distinguished between Realist, Rationalist and Revolutionist traditions, placing the idea of a society of states within the Rationalist tradition. Hedley Bull systematised these ideas into a coherent theory of order in world politics.
国际社会的思想深深植根于自然法和格劳秀斯传统。雨果·格劳秀斯认为，即使在主权国家组成的世界中，也存在一个受法律和相互义务约束的社会。后来，马丁·怀特区分了现实主义、理性主义和革命主义三种传统，并将国家社会思想置于理性主义传统之中。赫德利·布尔将这些思想系统化，形成了关于世界政治秩序的连贯理论。
2. The Three Key Concepts: System, Society and World Society | 三个核心概念：体系、社会与世界社会
Bull distinguishes between an international system, an international society and world society. An international system exists when states have enough contact to make the behaviour of each a necessary consideration for the others. An international society exists when states also recognise common interests and values, and see themselves as bound by shared rules and institutions. World society refers to a broader community of individuals and non-state actors transcending the state system.
布尔区分了国际体系、国际社会和世界社会。国际体系指的是国家间接触足够密切，以至于每个国家的行为都会成为其他国家必须考虑的因素。国际社会则更进一步，指国家不仅相互联系，还认识到共同的利益和价值观，并认为自己受到共同规则和制度的约束。世界社会则指超越国家体系的、由个人和非国家行为体组成的更广泛共同体。
- International system: contact and strategic interaction only.
- International society: shared rules, norms and institutions among states.
- World society: transnational bonds linking individuals and groups across borders.
- 国际体系：仅有接触和战略互动。
- 国际社会：国家之间共享规则、规范和制度。
- 世界社会：跨越国界连接个人和群体的跨国纽带。
3. Anarchy and Order: The Central Paradox | 无政府状态与秩序：核心悖论
The central claim of the theory is that anarchy does not mean chaos. In international politics, anarchy simply means the absence of a world government or supreme authority above states. Despite this, an ordered society can and does exist. Bull argues that order is not imposed from above, but is produced by the shared practices of states themselves.
该理论的核心主张是：无政府状态并不意味着混乱。在国际政治中，无政府状态仅仅意味着不存在高于国家的世界政府或最高权威。尽管如此，有序的社会依然能够并且确实存在。布尔认为，秩序不是自上而下强加的，而是由国家之间共享的实践所产生的。
Anarchy + common rules + institutions = order
无政府状态 + 共同规则 + 制度 = 秩序
4. Common Interests and Shared Values | 共同利益与共同价值观
For a society of states to exist, there must be a sense of common interests. The most basic common interest is survival: all states wish to preserve their sovereignty and independence. Beyond survival, states often develop shared values such as the sanctity of treaties, diplomatic immunity, and the avoidance of unlimited war. These values are not always universal, but they are sufficiently widespread to sustain a society.
国家社会的存在需要一种共同利益感。最基本的共同利益是生存：所有国家都希望维护自己的主权和独立。在生存之外，国家还常常发展出共同价值观，例如条约神圣、外交豁免以及避免无限战争。这些价值观并不总是普遍的，但它们的广泛程度足以维持一个社会。
5. Rules of the Society of States | 国家社会的规则
Bull identifies three types of rules that uphold international order. First, the constitutive principle of sovereignty establishes who the main actors are. Second, rules of coexistence, such as those requiring respect for sovereignty, the keeping of promises and the limitation of violence, reduce conflict. Third, rules of cooperation facilitate trade, environmental protection and other joint projects. Without these rules, international life would be more unpredictable and dangerous.
布尔确定了三类维持国际秩序的规则。第一，主权这一构成性原则确立了谁是主要行为体。第二，共处规则，例如要求尊重主权、信守承诺和限制暴力的规则，减少了冲突。第三，合作规则促进了贸易、环境保护和其他共同事业。没有这些规则，国际生活将更加难以预测和充满危险。
6. Institutions: The Balance of Power | 制度：均势
The balance of power is one of the key institutions that maintain order in an anarchical society. It prevents any single state from achieving dominance and thereby preserves the independence of other states. Bull argues that the balance of power works not only through deliberate alliances, but also through the unintended outcome of states pursuing their own security. A stable balance reduces the likelihood of general war.
均势是在无政府社会中维持秩序的关键制度之一。它防止任何一个国家获得支配地位，从而维护其他国家的独立。布尔认为，均势不仅通过有意的结盟发挥作用，还通过国家追求自身安全所产生的意外结果而发挥作用。稳定的均势降低了全面战争的可能性。
7. Institutions: International Law | 制度：国际法
International law provides a normative framework that guides state behaviour. Although there is no world legislature or enforcement body comparable to domestic law, international law still shapes expectations. Treaties, customary law and general principles create obligations that states generally obey because they value order and reciprocal compliance. Bull sees international law as essential to turning a mere system into a society.
国际法提供了一个指导国家行为的规范框架。虽然没有世界立法机构或可与国内法相比的执行机构，但国际法仍然塑造了行为预期。条约、习惯法和一般原则创造了国家通常遵守的义务，因为它们重视秩序和相互遵守。布尔认为国际法对于将单纯体系转变为社会至关重要。
8. Institutions: Diplomacy | 制度：外交
Diplomacy is the institution through which states communicate, negotiate and manage their relations without resorting to force. Permanent embassies, summit meetings and international conferences allow states to resolve disputes and coordinate common actions. Bull argues that diplomacy is not merely a tool of foreign policy, but a fundamental institution of international society because it embodies mutual recognition and the willingness to compromise.
外交是国家在不诉诸武力的情况下进行沟通、谈判和管理关系的制度。常驻使馆、首脑会议和国际会议使国家能够解决争端并协调共同行动。布尔认为，外交不仅仅是外交政策的工具，更是国际社会的一项基本制度，因为它体现了相互承认和妥协的意愿。
9. Institutions: War and Great Power Management | 制度：战争与大国管理
War, paradoxically, can also be an institution of international society when it is limited and conducted according to rules. Just war theory, the laws of armed conflict and the distinction between combatants and non-combatants reflect a society of states trying to constrain violence. Similarly, great powers have a special responsibility to manage the international order through crisis diplomacy, spheres of influence and joint action to prevent regional conflicts from escalating.
矛盾的是，当战争受到限制并按照规则进行时，它也可以成为国际社会的一项制度。正义战争理论、武装冲突法以及战斗人员与非战斗人员的区分，都反映了一个试图约束暴力的国家社会。同样，大国负有管理国际秩序的特殊责任，包括通过危机外交、势力范围和联合行动来防止地区冲突升级。
10. Pluralism and Solidarism | 多元主义与团结主义
Within the English School, there is a key debate between pluralism and solidarism. Pluralists argue that international society should prioritise order among states with different values, and therefore should avoid imposing universal ideas of justice. Solidarists believe that a thicker society of states can and should enforce shared norms, including human rights, even if this limits state sovereignty. Bull himself occupied a middle position, acknowledging both the need for order and the growing demands for justice.
在英国学派内部，多元主义与团结主义之间存在着一场关键辩论。多元主义者认为，国际社会应优先维护不同价值观国家之间的秩序，因此应避免强加普遍的正义观念。团结主义者则认为，更紧密的国家社会能够而且应当执行包括人权在内的共同规范，即使这会限制国家主权。布尔本人采取了中间立场，既承认秩序的必要性，也承认日益增长的正义诉求。
11. Criticisms and Limitations | 批评与局限
The anarchical society theory has been criticised on several grounds. Realists argue that it exaggerates the degree of shared values and rule-following in a competitive world. Critical theorists claim that the society of states reflects Western dominance and ignores global inequalities. Constructivists acknowledge the role of norms but question whether state interests are as fixed as Bull sometimes suggests. Nevertheless, the theory remains a powerful framework for explaining how order can exist without a world government.
无政府社会理论受到多方面的批评。现实主义者认为，它夸大了竞争世界中共同价值观和规则遵循的程度。批判理论家声称，国家社会反映了西方的主导地位，并忽视了全球不平等。建构主义者承认规范的作用，但质疑国家利益是否像布尔有时所暗示的那样固定。尽管如此，该理论仍然是解释秩序如何在没有世界政府的情况下存在的一个有力框架。
12. Exam Focus: Using the Theory in A-Level Questions | 考点聚焦：在A-Level题目中运用该理论
In Edexcel A-Level Government and Politics, questions on the anarchical society often ask students to explain the difference between an international system and an international society, to assess the role of institutions such as international law and the balance of power, or to evaluate the pluralist and solidarist debate. Strong answers define key terms precisely, use examples such as the United Nations, NATO or the Genocide Convention, and link the theory to broader debates about sovereignty, order and justice.
在Edexcel A-Level政府与政治考试中，关于无政府社会的题目常常要求考生解释国际体系与国际社会的区别，评估国际法和均势等制度的作用，或评价多元主义与团结主义之争。高分答案会准确界定关键术语，使用联合国、北约或《灭绝种族罪公约》等实例，并将该理论与关于主权、秩序和正义的更广泛辩论联系起来。
| Concept | Key Idea |
|---|---|
| Anarchical society | Order without world government |
| International system | Contact and strategic interaction |
| International society | Shared rules, norms and institutions |
| World society | Transnational individual and group ties |
| Pluralism | Prioritise order over justice |
| Solidarism | Enforce shared norms, including human rights |
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