📚 The Debates Around the Extent to Which the US Remains Federal Today | 关于美国今日联邦制程度的辩论
The question of whether the United States remains a genuinely federal system today is one of the most contested debates in A-Level Politics. On one side, critics argue that the balance of power has shifted decisively towards the federal government in Washington, DC, leaving states as little more than administrative units. On the other side, defenders of federalism point to the enduring constitutional protections of state sovereignty, recent Supreme Court rulings, and the visible policy differences among states as evidence that federalism is still alive.
美国今天是否仍然是一个真正联邦制国家，是 A-Level 政治学中最具争议的辩论之一。一方批评者认为，权力天平已决定性地向华盛顿特区的联邦政府倾斜，各州几乎沦为行政执行单位。另一方联邦制的捍卫者则指出，宪法对州主权的持久保护、最高法院近年的判决以及各州之间明显的政策差异，都证明联邦制仍然富有活力。
1. Defining Federalism in the US Context | 美国联邦制的定义
Federalism refers to a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central authority and constituent political units. In the United States, the Constitution creates a federal structure by enumerating specific powers for Congress, reserving others to the states through the Tenth Amendment, and establishing the supremacy of federal law in Article VI. The debate today focuses on whether this division remains meaningful or whether power has shifted too far towards the centre.
联邦制是指主权在中央政府和组成政治单位之间依据宪法进行划分的政府体制。美国宪法通过列举国会的特定权力、通过第十修正案将其他权力保留给各州，并在第六条中确立联邦法律的最高地位，从而建立了联邦结构。当今的辩论集中于这种划分是否仍然有意义，还是权力已经过多地转向中央。
2. Constitutional Foundations and Dual Sovereignty | 宪法基础与双重主权
The framers designed a system of dual sovereignty, in which the national government would handle external affairs, interstate commerce and defence, while states retained broad police powers over health, safety, education and morals. The Tenth Amendment states that powers not delegated to the United States nor prohibited to the states are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. This amendment is frequently cited by those who argue that the US remains fundamentally federal, because it implies a sphere of autonomous state action.
制宪者设计了一种双重主权制度，由联邦政府处理外交、州际贸易和国防，而各州保留对卫生、安全、教育和道德的广泛治安权。第十修正案规定，未授予合众国、也未禁止各州行使的权力，分别保留给各州或人民。该修正案经常被那些认为美国在根本上仍保持联邦制的人所引用，因为它意味着各州拥有一定的自主行动领域。
3. The Expansion of Federal Power: Commerce and Spending | 联邦权力的扩张：商业条款与财政支出
Over time, the federal government has expanded its reach through broad interpretations of the Commerce Clause and its control over taxation and spending. Congress can attach conditions to grants-in-aid, effectively shaping state policy in areas such as education, transport and healthcare. Critics argue that this fiscal leverage has turned states into administrative agents rather than independent policymakers, thereby undermining the original federal balance.
随着时间的推移，联邦政府通过对商业条款的宽泛解释以及对税收和支出的控制，扩大了其管辖范围。国会可以对拨款附加条件，从而有效地影响各州在教育、交通和医疗等领域的政策。批评者认为，这种财政杠杆已将各州变成了行政执行者，而不是独立的决策者，从而破坏了最初的联邦平衡。
4. New Federalism and Devolution | 新联邦主义与分权
Since the 1970s, movements such as Nixon’s New Federalism and Reagan’s devolution agenda have sought to return powers and responsibilities to the states. Block grants replaced some categorical grants, giving states greater discretion over spending. The 1996 welfare reform law is often seen as a high point of devolution, as it gave states significant control over cash assistance programmes, allowing them to set eligibility rules and time limits.
自20世纪70年代以来，尼克松的“新联邦主义”和里根的分权议程等运动试图将权力和责任归还给各州。整笔拨款取代了一些分类拨款，使各州在支出方面拥有更大的自由裁量权。1996年的福利改革法常被视为分权的高峰，因为它赋予各州对现金援助计划的重大控制权，允许各州自行设定资格规则和时限。
5. Supreme Court Limits on Federal Power | 最高法院对联邦权力的限制
In United States v. Lopez (1995), the Supreme Court struck down a federal law banning guns in school zones, ruling that the activity did not substantially affect interstate commerce. Similarly, in Printz v. United States (1997), the Court held that the federal government could not command state officials to enforce federal background checks. These rulings suggest that legal limits on federal authority still exist and help preserve the federal structure.
在美国诉洛佩兹案（1995）中，最高法院推翻了一项禁止在学校区域携带枪支的联邦法律，裁定该活动并未实质性地影响州际贸易。同样，在普林茨诉美国案（1997）中，法院裁定联邦政府不能命令州官员执行联邦背景调查。这些判决表明，对联邦权力的法律限制仍然存在，并有助于维护联邦结构。
6. NFIB v. Sebelius and the Affordable Care Act | 全国独立企业联合会诉西贝利厄斯案与《平价医疗法案》
In NFIB v. Sebelius (2012), the Supreme Court upheld most of the Affordable Care Act but limited the federal government’s ability to coerce states into expanding Medicaid. The Court ruled that threatening to withdraw all existing Medicaid funding was unconstitutionally coercive. This decision reinforced the idea that states retain a meaningful choice in some areas of federal programmes, even when federal money is involved.
在全国独立企业联合会诉西贝利厄斯案（2012）中，最高法院维持了《平价医疗法案》的大部分内容，但限制了联邦政府强迫各州扩大医疗补助的能力。法院裁定，威胁撤回所有现有医疗补助资金是违宪的胁迫。这一判决强化了各州在联邦计划的某些领域仍拥有有意义选择的观点，即使涉及联邦资金时也是如此。
7. Fiscal Federalism: Grants and Mandates | 财政联邦制：拨款与授权
Fiscal federalism describes how federal funds flow to states through categorical grants, block grants and unfunded mandates. States depend heavily on federal revenue for programmes such as Medicaid and education. This dependence means that even when formal powers are reserved to states, financial incentives and penalties often push state policy in a nationally uniform direction, blurring the lines of accountability.
财政联邦制描述了联邦资金如何通过分类拨款、整笔拨款和无资金授权流向各州。各州在医疗补助和教育等项目上严重依赖联邦收入。这种依赖意味着，即使正式权力保留给各州，财政激励和惩罚也常常推动州政策走向全国统一的方向，模糊了问责的界限。
8. State Innovation and Resistance | 州政策创新与抵制
States remain active policy laboratories, experimenting with policies on minimum wage, carbon emissions, drug legalisation and voting rules. For example, some states have legalised recreational cannabis despite federal prohibition. States have also sued the federal government over issues such as immigration enforcement and environmental regulation, demonstrating that they are not passive actors in the federal system.
各州仍然是活跃的政策实验室，在最低工资、碳排放、毒品合法化和投票规则等方面进行试验。例如，一些州在联邦禁止的情况下已将娱乐性大麻合法化。各州还就移民执法和环境监管等问题起诉联邦政府，表明它们并不是联邦体系中的被动行为者。
9. Current Tensions: Marijuana, Immigration and Healthcare | 当前的紧张关系：大麻、移民与医疗保健
Current debates over marijuana policy, sanctuary cities and healthcare illustrate the contested nature of US federalism. The federal government classifies cannabis as illegal, yet many states have created regulated markets. Immigration enforcement has led to clashes between federal agencies and local law enforcement. These conflicts show that the boundaries between federal and state authority are still being negotiated and can vary from issue to issue.
当前关于大麻政策、庇护城市和医疗保健的辩论说明了美国联邦制的争议本质。联邦政府将大麻列为非法，但许多州已经建立了受监管的市场。移民执法导致联邦机构与地方执法部门之间的冲突。这些冲突表明，联邦与州权力之间的边界仍在协商之中，并且可能因议题而异。
10. Assessment: How Federal Is the US Today? | 评估：美国今日有多联邦化？
Assessing the extent of US federalism requires weighing centralising forces against decentralising ones. Formal constitutional constraints and Supreme Court rulings continue to protect state sovereignty. However, the sheer scale of federal spending, national crises and interstate commerce regulation means that the federal government exercises enormous influence over areas once reserved to states. Most scholars argue that the US remains federal, but it is a highly centralised form of federalism, often described as cooperative or coercive federalism rather than the dual federalism of the founding era.
评估美国联邦制的程度需要权衡集权力量与分权力量。正式的宪法约束和最高法院的判决继续保护州主权。然而，联邦支出的庞大规模、国家危机和州际贸易监管意味着联邦政府对曾经保留给各州的领域施加了巨大影响。大多数学者认为美国仍然是联邦制，但它是一种高度集权的联邦制，常被称为合作联邦制或强制联邦制，而非建国时期的二元联邦制。
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