📚 AQA GCSE Psychology: Knowledge Checklist and Revision Guide | AQA GCSE 心理学：知识点梳理与复习指南
AQA GCSE Psychology gives you a clear introduction to how the mind works and why people behave as they do. This guide organises the whole specification into ten focused sections, covering core theories, named studies, research methods and real-life applications, so you can build a complete revision plan.
AQA GCSE 心理学带你初步了解心理如何运作，以及人们为什么会表现出某些行为。本指南将整个考纲划分为十个重点板块，覆盖核心理论、指定研究、研究方法与现实应用，帮助你制定完整的复习计划。
1. Course Overview and Exam Structure | 课程概览与考试结构
There are two written papers, each worth 50% of the GCSE and each lasting 1 hour 45 minutes. Paper 1 is called ‘Cognition and behaviour’ and Paper 2 is called ‘Social context and behaviour’.
考试共两份笔试，各占GCSE总成绩的50%，每场考试时长1小时45分钟。卷一为“认知与行为”，卷二为“社会情境与行为”。
- Paper 1: Memory, Perception, Development and Research Methods. 卷一：记忆、感知、发展、研究方法。
- Paper 2: Social Influence, Language Thought and Communication, Brain and Neuropsychology, Psychological Problems. 卷二：社会影响、语言思维与交流、大脑与神经心理学、心理问题。
Questions include multiple choice, short answers, application items and extended writing. The extended questions usually ask you to describe, evaluate or compare explanations and studies.
题型包括选择题、简答题、情境应用题和扩展写作题。扩展题通常要求你描述、评估或比较不同解释和研究。
2. Memory | 记忆
Memory is divided into three stores: the sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Each store can be compared using coding, capacity and duration.
记忆分为三个存储系统：感觉登记、短期记忆（STM）和长期记忆（LTM）。可以从编码、容量和持续时间三个维度比较这三个系统。
The sensory register uses modality-specific coding, has very large capacity and lasts less than one second. STM uses acoustic coding, has a capacity of about 7±2 items and lasts roughly 30 seconds. LTM uses semantic coding, has unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime.
感觉登记按感觉通道进行特异性编码，容量极大，持续不到1秒。短期记忆以声音编码，容量约为7±2个项目，持续约30秒。长期记忆以意义编码为主，容量无限，可持续终生。
Miller (1956) found that STM capacity is 7±2 chunks, which can be increased by chunking. Peterson and Peterson (1959) presented trigrams and found that STM decays within about 18–30 seconds when rehearsal is prevented.
米勒（1956）发现短期记忆容量约为7±2个组块，组块化可提高记忆量。彼得森夫妇（1959）使用三辅音无意义音节，发现阻止复述后短期记忆约在18–30秒内消退。
Forgetting can be explained by interference theory, where proactive and retroactive interference disrupt recall, and by retrieval failure theory, where missing internal or external cues make memories difficult to access.
遗忘可由干扰理论和提取失败理论解释。干扰理论认为前摄干扰和倒摄干扰破坏回忆；提取失败理论认为缺少内部或外部线索会导致记忆难以提取。
Bartlett (1932) used the ‘War of the Ghosts’ story and found that participants distorted details to fit their own schemas. This supports the idea that memory is reconstructive rather than a perfect recording.
巴特利特（1932）使用《鬼怪战争》故事进行实验，发现参与者会按自己的图式扭曲细节。这支持记忆是重建性的，而非完美录像。
3. Perception | 感知
Sensation is the raw information received by the senses, while perception is the brain’s active interpretation of that information.
感觉是感官接收的原始信息，知觉则是大脑对这些信息的主动解释。
Monocular depth cues help us judge distance using one eye. Key cues include linear perspective, relative size, height in plane, occlusion and shading.
单眼深度线索帮助我们使用一只眼睛判断距离。主要线索包括线性透视、相对大小、平面高度、遮挡和阴影。
Gestalt principles describe how we organise visual information. They include similarity, proximity and figure-ground; for example, we group similar or close objects together.
格式塔原则描述我们如何组织视觉信息，包括相似性、接近性和图形-背景关系。例如，我们会把相似或接近的物体归为一组。
Gibson’s direct theory argues that perception is bottom-up; the optic flow pattern gives us enough information without mental processing. The visual cliff study by Gibson and Walk (1960) suggests depth perception is partly innate.
吉布森的知觉直接理论认为知觉是自下而上的过程；视觉流模式提供了足够的信息，无需认知加工。吉布森和沃克（1960）的视崖实验表明深度知觉具有一定先天成分。
Gregory’s constructive theory argues that perception is top-down and influenced by schemas and perceptual set. Ambiguous figures, such as the face-vase illusion, show how the brain tests hypotheses about the world.
格雷戈里的知觉建构理论认为知觉是自上而下的过程，受图式和知觉定势影响。两可图形（如人脸-花瓶幻觉）展示大脑如何对世界提出假设并进行检验。
Evaluation: Gibson explains fast, accurate perception in familiar environments, but underestimates the role of knowledge. Gregory explains illusions and context effects well, but overemphasises top-down processing.
评价：吉布森的理论能解释熟悉环境下快速、准确的知觉，但低估了知识的作用。格雷戈里的理论能很好解释错觉与情境影响，但过度强调自上而下的加工。
4. Development | 发展
Early brain development involves rapid formation of neurons and synapses. Synaptic pruning removes unused connections and strengthens active ones, supporting flexible learning.
早期大脑发育涉及神经元和突触的快速增长。突触修剪会清除未使用的连接，加强活跃连接，从而支持灵活学习。
Piaget proposed four stages: sensorimotor (0–2 years), pre-operational (2–7 years), concrete operational (7–11 years) and formal operational (11+ years). Children develop object permanence, conservation and logical thinking at different points.
皮亚杰提出四个发展阶段：感知运动期（0–2岁）、前运算期（2–7岁）、具体运算期（7–11岁）和形式运算期（11岁以上）。儿童在不同阶段逐步发展出客体永久性、守恒和逻辑思维。
Piaget used the three mountains task to show egocentrism in pre-operational children, and conservation tasks to show that younger children do not yet conserve quantity.
皮亚杰通过三山任务证明前运算期儿童具有自我中心性，并通过守恒任务证明幼儿尚未获得数量守恒能力。
McGarrigle and Donaldson used the ‘naughty teddy’ conservation task and found that more children succeeded when the change was accidental. This suggests Piaget underestimated young children’s abilities.
麦加里格尔和唐纳森使用“捣蛋泰迪熊”实验，发现当改变是意外发生时，更多儿童能完成守恒任务。这表明皮亚杰可能低估了幼儿的能力。
Vygotsky emphasised social learning. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the gap between what a child can do alone and with help; scaffolding from adults and ‘more knowledgeable others’ supports development.
维果茨基强调社会学习的重要性。最近发展区（ZPD）指儿童独立完成任务与在帮助下完成任务之间的差距；成人和“更有能力者”提供的支架式支持促进发展。
Theory of mind is assessed using false-belief tasks such as the Sally-Anne study. Understanding that others can hold false beliefs is a key developmental milestone around age four.
心理理论通常通过错误信念任务（如莎莉-安妮研究）来测量。理解他人可能持有错误信念是约4岁时出现的重要发展里程碑。
5. Research Methods | 研究方法
You need to know hypotheses, variables, experimental designs, sampling methods, ethical issues, and data handling. These concepts are tested throughout both papers.
你需要掌握假设、变量、实验设计、抽样方法、伦理问题和数据处理。这些概念在卷一卷二都会考查。
Experiments can be laboratory, field or natural. Independent variables (IV) are manipulated, and dependent variables (DV) are measured. Extraneous variables must be controlled to improve validity.
实验可分为实验室实验、现场实验和自然实验。自变量（IV）被操纵，因变量（DV）被测量。必须控制额外变量以提高效度。
- Independent groups: different participants in each condition. 独立组设计：不同被试分别进入不同条件。
- Repeated measures: the same participants in all conditions. 重复测量设计：同一组被试接受所有条件。
- Matched pairs: participants matched on key variables. 匹配组设计：在关键变量上匹配被试。
Sampling methods include random, opportunity, volunteer and stratified sampling. Each has strengths and weaknesses for generalisation and bias.
抽样方法包括随机抽样、机会抽样、自愿样本和分层抽样。每种方法在推广性和偏差方面各有优缺点。
Ethical guidelines include informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, confidentiality and dealing with deception. Studies such as Milgram’s show why ethics are vital.
伦理准则包括知情同意、退出权、免受伤害、保密和处理欺骗。米尔格拉姆等研究说明伦理为何至关重要。
Data can be quantitative or qualitative, and primary or secondary. Measures of central tendency include mean, median and mode; the range measures spread. Evaluate data using reliability and validity.
数据可分为定量或定性、第一手或第二手。集中趋势统计量包括平均数、中位数和众数；极差衡量离散程度。使用信度和效度评估数据。
6. Social Influence | 社会影响
Social influence explains how other people change our behaviour, including conformity, obedience, and helping or bystander behaviour.
社会影响解释他人如何改变我们的行为，包括从众、服从以及助人和旁观者行为。
Asch’s line-judgement studies showed that people conform to a majority, especially when the group is unanimous and large. Normative social influence drives the need to fit in, while informational social influence drives the need to be correct.
阿希的线条判断实验表明，人们会顺从大多数，尤其当群体一致且规模较大时。规范性社会影响源于被接纳的渴望，信息性社会影响源于正确判断的渴望。
Milgram’s electric shock study found that 65% of participants gave what they thought were dangerously high shocks. His agency theory suggests people shift from an autonomous to an agentic state, seeing themselves as acting for an authority figure.
米尔格拉姆电击实验发现65%的参与者施加了他们认为危险的电流。他的代理人理论认为，人们会从自主状态转向代理状态，认为自己是在为权威人物执行命令。
Obedience is increased when the authority figure is close, when the victim is far away, and when the institution has high status and visible uniforms.
当权威人物距离更近、受害者距离更远、所在机构地位高且穿制服时，服从程度会增加。
Piliavin’s subway study examined helping behaviour in natural settings. Bystander effect
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