IGCSE Business Studies | Pricing Strategies | 定价策略

📚 IGCSE Business Studies | Pricing Strategies | 定价策略

Pricing is one of the most critical decisions in the marketing mix. It is the only element that generates revenue, while all other elements — product, place, and promotion — create costs. In this article, we will explore the key pricing strategies that businesses use, the objectives behind them, and the factors that influence pricing decisions. Understanding these concepts is essential for IGCSE Business Studies students preparing for the CIE examinations.

定价是营销组合中最关键的决策之一。它是营销组合中唯一能够创造收入的因素，而产品、渠道和促销等其它要素都会产生成本。在本文中，我们将探讨企业使用的关键定价策略、定价目标以及影响定价决策的因素。理解这些概念对于准备 CIE 考试的 IGCSE 商科学生至关重要。

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1. What is a Pricing Strategy? | 什么是定价策略？

A pricing strategy is a method used by businesses to set the price of their products or services. The chosen strategy must balance the need to cover costs, generate profit, remain competitive, and attract customers. An effective pricing strategy is not static — it often changes over time as market conditions, costs, and product life cycles evolve.

定价策略是企业为其产品或服务设定价格所采用的方法。所选策略必须平衡覆盖成本、创造利润、保持竞争力和吸引客户等多方面的需求。有效的定价策略并非一成不变——它通常会随着市场条件、成本和产品生命周期的变化而调整。

Pricing decisions are influenced by two broad perspectives:

定价决策受到两大视角的影响：

• Internal factors — cost of production, business objectives, and financial position of the firm.
• External factors — competition, customer demand, economic conditions, and government regulations.

• 内部因素——生产成本、企业经营目标和财务状况。
• 外部因素——竞争、客户需求、经济状况和政府法规。

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2. Pricing Objectives | 定价目标

Before choosing a pricing strategy, a business must define what it wants to achieve. These objectives vary depending on the stage of the business and its overall corporate goals.

在选择定价策略之前，企业必须明确其想要达成的目标。这些目标因企业所处阶段及其整体公司目标的不同而有所差异。

• Profit maximisation — Setting a price that yields the highest possible profit, often in the short term. This is common in the maturity stage of the product life cycle.
• Sales maximisation — Pricing to achieve the largest possible sales volume, even if this means accepting lower profit margins, to gain market share or enter new markets.
• Market share growth — Using lower prices to attract customers from competitors, often associated with penetration pricing.
• Survival — In highly competitive or declining markets, a business may set prices just to cover variable costs and stay operational in the short run.
• Brand image enhancement — Premium pricing can create a perception of quality and exclusivity, reinforcing a luxury brand position.

• 利润最大化——设定能够产生最高利润的价格，通常在短期内追求这一目标。这在产品生命周期的成熟期比较常见。
• 销售额最大化——以实现最大销量为目标来定价，即使这意味着接受较低的利润率，以获取市场份额或进入新市场。
• 市场份额增长——通过较低价格从竞争对手处吸引客户，通常与渗透定价策略相关。
• 生存——在竞争激烈或衰退的市场中，企业可能仅将价格设定为足以覆盖可变成本，以在短期内维持经营。
• 品牌形象提升——高价策略可以营造品质感和稀缺感，强化奢侈品牌的定位。

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3. Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions | 影响定价决策的因素

Several key factors must be considered when setting a price. These factors can be grouped into internal and external categories.

企业在定价时需要考虑多个关键因素。这些因素可以分为内部因素和外部因素两大类。

Category | 类别	Factor | 因素	Explanation | 说明
Internal | 内部	Costs of production | 生产成本	Price must cover fixed and variable costs in the long run, otherwise the business will make a loss.
Internal | 内部	Business objectives | 企业目标	A premium brand will adopt different pricing from a budget brand.
External | 外部	Competition | 竞争	Prices of rivals set a reference point; aggressive competition may force price cuts.
External | 外部	Demand | 需求	Price elasticity of demand tells how sensitive customers are to price changes.
External | 外部	Government | 政府	Price controls, taxes, and regulations may limit pricing freedom.
External | 外部	Economic conditions | 经济状况	During a recession, customers become more price-sensitive, pushing prices downward.

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4. Market-Based Pricing: Price Skimming | 市场导向定价：撇脂定价

Price skimming involves setting a high initial price for a new or innovative product, then gradually lowering the price over time. This strategy is often used for new technology products, such as smartphones and gaming consoles.

撇脂定价是指为新产品或创新产品设定较高的初始价格，然后随着时间的推移逐步降低价格。该策略常用于新科技产品，如智能手机和游戏主机。

Advantages | 优点	Disadvantages | 缺点
High profit margins in early stage | 初期利润率较高	May attract competitors quickly due to high profits | 高利润会迅速吸引竞争者进入
Helps recover research and development costs quickly | 有助于快速回收研发成本	Limited sales volume at high prices | 高价导致销量受限
Creates an exclusive, premium image | 营造高端、独家形象	Cannot be used when demand is highly elastic | 需求弹性大时无法使用

This strategy works best when the product is unique, protected by patents, or has a strong brand reputation. As competitors enter the market, the firm lowers the price to attract more price-sensitive customers.

这种策略最适合具有独特性、受专利保护或拥有强大品牌声誉的产品。当竞争者进入市场后，企业降低价格以吸引更多对价格敏感的客户。

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5. Market-Based Pricing: Penetration Pricing | 市场导向定价：渗透定价

Penetration pricing is the opposite of price skimming. It involves setting a low initial price to attract a large number of customers quickly and gain significant market share. Once the product is established, the price may be gradually increased.

渗透定价与撇脂定价相反。它通过设定较低的初始价格来迅速吸引大量客户并获取可观的市场份额。一旦产品在市场上站稳脚跟，价格可能会逐步提高。

• Objective — To enter a market quickly and build a customer base, often used in highly competitive markets such as streaming services and supermarkets.
• Risk — The low price may lead to losses in the short term, and the business must have sufficient financial reserves to sustain this.
• Long-term effect — Once customers are loyal, the business can raise prices, but this may cause customer dissatisfaction.

• 目标——快速进入市场并建立客户群，常用于流媒体服务和超市等竞争激烈的市场。
• 风险——低价可能导致短期亏损，企业必须有充足的财务储备来维持这一策略。
• 长期影响——一旦客户产生忠诚度，企业可以提高价格，但这可能导致客户不满。

Penetration pricing is most effective when the market is large, customers are price-sensitive, and competitors are likely to respond aggressively. The strategy is commonly seen in subscription services, where introductory discounts attract initial sign-ups.

渗透定价在市场巨大、客户对价格敏感且竞争对手可能积极回应时最为有效。该策略常见于订阅服务中，通过入门折扣吸引用户注册。

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6. Cost-Based Pricing: Cost-Plus Pricing | 成本导向定价：成本加成定价

Cost-plus pricing is a straightforward method where a business calculates the total cost of producing one unit of output and then adds a percentage markup to determine the selling price. The formula is shown below.

成本加成定价是一种直接的方法：企业计算生产一单位产品的总成本，然后在此基础上加上一定百分比的加成来确定销售价格。公式如下所示。

Selling Price = Total Cost per unit × (1 + Markup Percentage)

销售价格 = 单位总成本 × (1 + 加成百分比)

For example, if the total cost per unit is $10 and the desired markup is 50%, the selling price will be $15.

例如，如果单位总成本为 10 美元，目标加成率为 50%，那么销售价格就是 15 美元。

Advantages | 优点	Disadvantages | 缺点
Simple and easy to calculate | 计算简单，易于操作	Ignores competitor prices and customer demand | 忽视竞争对手价格和客户需求
Ensures all costs are covered and profit is made | 确保覆盖所有成本并获得利润	May lead to uncompetitive prices if costs are high | 若成本较高，价格可能缺乏竞争力
Useful for businesses with many products | 适用于产品种类繁多的企业	Does not reflect customer willingness to pay | 未能反映客户的支付意愿

This strategy is widely used by retailers, wholesalers, and manufacturers where estimating demand is difficult. However, businesses using cost-plus pricing must remain aware of market conditions to avoid overpricing or underpricing.

这种策略广泛用于难以估算需求的零售商、批发商和制造商。然而，采用成本加成定价的企业必须密切关注市场状况，避免定价过高或过低。

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7. Competition-Based Pricing | 竞争导向定价

Competition-based pricing (or competitor-based pricing) means setting prices based on what competitors charge, rather than on costs or demand. There are two main forms.

竞争导向定价（或称基于竞争对手的定价）是指根据竞争对手的收费来设定价格，而不是根据成本或需求。它有两种主要形式。

• Going-rate pricing (market rate pricing) — The business sets its price equal to the average price charged by competitors. This is common in homogeneous markets, such as petrol stations or basic groceries.
• Premium pricing / discount pricing — The business deliberately sets its price above or below competitors to create a distinct brand position.

• 随行就市定价（市场利率定价）——企业将价格设定为与竞争对手的平均价格一致。这在同质化市场（如加油站或基本食品杂货）中较为常见。
• 高价定价 / 折扣定价——企业有意将价格设定在竞争对手之上或之下，以建立独特的品牌定位。

Competition-based pricing is relatively easy to implement, but it carries a risk: if a business always matches its competitors’ prices, it may fail to cover its own higher costs. Therefore, firms using this strategy must study their cost structure carefully.

竞争导向定价相对易于实施，但也存在风险：如果企业总是跟随竞争对手的价格，可能无法覆盖自身较高的成本。因此，采用该策略的企业必须仔细研究自身的成本结构。

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8. Other Pricing Strategies | 其它定价策略

Beyond the three major categories above, several additional strategies are commonly examined in IGCSE Business Studies.

除了上述三大类之外，还有一些在 IGCSE 商科考试中常见的其它定价策略。

8.1 Promotional Pricing | 促销定价

Promotional pricing involves temporarily reducing the price of a product to boost sales, attract attention, or clear old stock. Examples include “buy one get one free” offers, seasonal discounts, and flash sales.

促销定价是指暂时降低产品价格以促进销售、吸引关注或清空旧库存。例如”买一送一”、季节性折扣和限时抢购等。

8.2 Loss Leader | 亏本引流

A loss leader is a product sold at a price below its cost to attract customers into the store. The business hopes that customers will buy other full-priced products while they are there. Supermarkets often use bread or milk as loss leaders.

亏本引流是指以低于成本的价格销售某种产品，以吸引顾客进入商店。企业希望顾客在店内同时购买其它全价产品。超市常用面包或牛奶作为亏本引流商品。

8.3 Psychological Pricing | 心理定价

Psychological pricing uses pricing techniques that appeal to the emotional or psychological response of customers rather than their rational calculation. Common examples include charm pricing ($9.99 instead of $10.00) and prestige pricing (high prices to signal superior quality).

心理定价利用能够引发顾客情感或心理反应的定价技巧，而不是基于理性计算。常见例子包括尾数定价（用 $9.99 替代 $10.00）和声望定价（高价以暗示品质卓越）。

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9. When to Use Each Strategy | 每种策略的适用情境

Choosing the right pricing strategy depends on the product life cycle stage, the nature of the product, and the target market. The table below summarises common recommendations.

选择正确的定价策略取决于产品生命周期阶段、产品属性和目标市场。下表总结了常见的建议。

Situation | 情境	Recommended Strategy | 推荐策略
New innovative product with no direct competitors | 具有创新性、无直接竞争对手的新产品	Price skimming | 撇脂定价
Entering a mass-market with strong existing rivals | 进入已有强劲竞争对手的大众市场	Penetration pricing | 渗透定价
Business with high production costs and stable demand | 生产成本较高且需求稳定的企业	Cost-plus pricing | 成本加成定价
Homogeneous products in a competitive market | 竞争激烈的同质化产品市场	Competitive pricing | 竞争导向定价
Clearing surplus stock quickly | 快速清理过剩库存	Promotional pricing | 促销定价

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10. Price Elasticity of Demand and Pricing | 需求价格弹性与定价

Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures how responsive the quantity demanded is to a change in price. This concept is directly related to pricing strategy.

需求价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变化的敏感程度。这一概念与定价策略直接相关。

• Elastic demand (PED > 1) — Customers are highly responsive to price changes. A small increase in price leads to a larger proportion fall in demand. Therefore, lowering prices can increase total revenue. Penetration pricing works well here.
• Inelastic demand (PED < 1) — Demand is relatively unaffected by price changes. Products such as petrol, basic food, and medicines fall into this category. Raising prices will increase total revenue, so price skimming or prestige pricing can be effective.

• 弹性需求（PED > 1）——客户对价格变化高度敏感。价格小幅上涨会导致需求大幅下降。因此，降低价格可以增加总收益。渗透定价在此类市场效果良好。
• 缺乏弹性需求（PED < 1）——需求对价格变化不敏感。汽油、基本食品和药品等属于此类。提高价格会增加总收益，因此撇脂定价或声望定价更为有效。

PED = Percentage change in quantity demanded ÷ Percentage change in price

需求价格弹性 = 需求量变化百分比 ÷ 价格变化百分比

Understanding PED helps businesses decide whether to raise or lower prices and which pricing strategy best suits their product’s demand characteristics.

理解需求价格弹性有助于企业决定是提价还是降价，以及哪种定价策略最适合其产品的需求特征。

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11. Ethical Considerations in Pricing | 定价中的伦理考量

Some pricing practices are controversial and may be regulated by law. Students should be aware of these ethical issues in the examination context.

一些定价行为存在争议，并可能受到法律监管。学生在考试中需要了解这些伦理问题。

• Price fixing — Competitors colluding to set artificially high prices. This is illegal in most countries.
• Dumping — Selling products below cost in foreign markets to eliminate local competitors.
• Price discrimination — Charging different prices to different customer groups for the same product, which may be unfair in some circumstances.
• Inflated pricing — Artificially raising prices during crises, such as hiking the price of masks during a pandemic.

• 价格串通——竞争对手合谋设定人为高价。这在大多数国家属于违法行为。
• 倾销——以低于成本的价格在海外市场销售产品，以排挤当地竞争对手。
• 价格歧视——对同一产品向不同客户群体收取不同价格，在某些情况下可能不公平。
• 哄抬价格——在危机期间人为抬高价格，例如疫情期间抬高口罩价格。

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12. Conclusion | 总结

Pricing strategy is a balancing act. A business must consider its costs, competitors, customers, and strategic objectives. No single strategy is perfect for every situation; instead, managers must continuously evaluate market conditions and adjust their pricing accordingly. The best pricing strategy is one that aligns with the overall marketing mix, delivers value to customers, and generates sustainable profit for the business.

定价策略是一种平衡艺术。企业必须考虑自身的成本、竞争对手、客户和战略目标。没有一种策略适合所有情境；相反，管理者必须持续评估市场状况并相应调整定价。最佳定价策略是能够与整体营销组合保持一致、为客户创造价值并为企

业带来可持续利润的策略。

Published by TutorHao | Business Studies Revision Series | aleveler.com

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