The Definition and Measurement of Unemployment | 失业的定义与衡量

📚 The Definition and Measurement of Unemployment | 失业的定义与衡量

Unemployment is one of the most closely watched macroeconomic indicators in any economy. It measures the number of people who are willing and able to work at current wage rates but cannot find a job. For A-Level Economics students, understanding how unemployment is defined and measured is essential — not only because it appears frequently in examinations, but also because the choice of measurement method can significantly affect the reported figures and the resulting policy decisions.

失业是任何经济体中最受关注的宏观经济指标之一。它衡量的是那些愿意并能够在现行工资水平下工作，却找不到工作的人数。对于 A-Level 经济学学生而言，理解失业的定义和衡量方式至关重要——这不仅因为它在考试中频繁出现，更因为衡量方法的选择会显著影响所报告的数据以及由此产生的政策决策。

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1. The Formal Definition of Unemployment | 失业的正式定义

The internationally accepted definition of unemployment, established by the International Labour Organization (ILO), states that a person is unemployed if they are without a job, are actively seeking work, and are available to start work within a specified period (usually two weeks). This three-part definition is deliberately precise: a person must satisfy all three conditions simultaneously to be classified as unemployed.

国际劳工组织（ILO）确立的国际公认失业定义指出，一个人若符合以下条件即为失业：没有工作、正在积极寻找工作，并且在规定期限内（通常为两周）可以开始工作。这一三部分定义刻意精确：一个人必须同时满足全部三个条件才能被归类为失业者。

This definition matters because it distinguishes the unemployed from other groups of non-workers. For instance, a student who is not seeking work is not unemployed; a retired pensioner is not unemployed; and a parent who stays home to care for children without seeking employment is not counted as unemployed. These individuals are classified as economically inactive rather than unemployed.

这一定义之所以重要，是因为它将失业者与其他不工作群体区分开来。例如，不找工作的学生不是失业者；退休的养老金领取者不是失业者；在家照顾孩子且不寻求就业的父母也不被计为失业者。这些个体被归类为经济不活跃人口，而非失业人口。

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2. Key Terminology: Labour Force and Inactivity | 关键术语：劳动力与经济不活跃

To measure unemployment accurately, we must first understand the structure of the population. The working-age population typically includes all individuals aged 16 to 64 (or 65, depending on the country). Within this group, economists divide people into two broad categories: those in the labour force and those who are economically inactive.

要准确衡量失业，我们必须首先理解人口的结构。劳动年龄人口通常包括所有 16 至 64 岁（或 65 岁，视国家而定）的个体。在这一群体中，经济学家将人们分为两大类：劳动力中的成员和经济不活跃者。

Labour Force = Employed + Unemployed

劳动力 = 就业者 + 失业者

People who are not in the labour force include full-time students, retired persons, homemakers, carers, and those who are unable to work due to long-term illness or disability. They may also include “discouraged workers” — individuals who have given up looking for work because they believe no jobs are available. As we shall see, the treatment of discouraged workers is a critical issue in unemployment measurement.

不在劳动力中的人口包括全职学生、退休人员、家庭主妇、照护者，以及因长期疾病或残疾而无法工作的人。他们也可能包括”丧失信心的工人”——即因为认为没有工作可寻而放弃找工作的人。正如我们将看到的，如何对待丧失信心的工人是失业衡量中的一个关键问题。

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3. Unemployment Rate and Labour Force Participation Rate | 失业率与劳动力参与率

The unemployment rate is the most common statistic used to describe the state of the labour market. It is calculated as follows:

失业率是描述劳动力市场状况最常用的统计指标，计算公式如下：

Unemployment Rate = (Number of Unemployed ÷ Labour Force) × 100

失业率 =（失业人数 ÷ 劳动力人数）× 100%

It is crucial to note that the denominator is the labour force — not the entire working-age population. This distinction is important because a country with a low unemployment rate might still have many working-age people who are not working at all, simply because they are classified as economically inactive.

务必注意，公式中的分母是劳动力——而非全部劳动年龄人口。这一区别很重要，因为一个失业率较低的国家，其劳动年龄人口中可能仍有许多人完全不工作，仅仅是因为他们被归类为经济不活跃。

The labour force participation rate complements the unemployment rate by showing the proportion of the working-age population that is either employed or unemployed:

劳动力参与率通过显示劳动年龄人口中就业或失业的比例来补充失业率的信息：

Participation Rate = (Labour Force ÷ Working-Age Population) × 100

参与率 =（劳动力 ÷ 劳动年龄人口）× 100%

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4. Measuring Unemployment: The Labour Force Survey (LFS) | 衡量失业的方法：劳动力调查（LFS）

The Labour Force Survey (LFS) is the ILO-compliant method of measuring unemployment, and it is used in most developed economies, including the UK. The LFS is a household-based sample survey, typically conducted quarterly, which asks a representative sample of approximately 60,000 households detailed questions about their employment status.

劳动力调查（LFS）是符合国际劳工组织标准的失业衡量方法，被包括英国在内的大多数发达经济体采用。LFS 是一项以家庭为单位的抽样调查，通常按季度进行，会询问约 6 万个具有代表性的家庭有关其就业状况的详细问题。

Respondents are asked whether they worked for at least one hour in the reference week (paid or unpaid for a family business), whether they were temporarily absent from work, whether they had been actively seeking work in the past four weeks, and whether they could start work within two weeks. Based on their responses, individuals are classified as employed, unemployed, or economically inactive.

受访者会被问及在过去一周内是否至少工作了一小时（有酬或为家庭企业无酬工作）、是否暂时缺勤、在过去四周内是否积极寻找工作，以及是否能在两周内开始工作。根据他们的回答，个体被归类为就业、失业或经济不活跃。

The LFS uses the internationally comparable ILO definition, which makes cross-country comparisons meaningful. Because it is a survey, however, it is subject to sampling error, and the results are estimates rather than exact counts. Nevertheless, the LFS is generally regarded as the more accurate and objective measure of the two main UK measures.

LFS 使用国际可比的国际劳工组织定义，这使得跨国比较具有意义。然而，由于它是抽样调查，存在抽样误差，结果属于估计值而非精确数据。尽管如此，LFS 通常被认为是在英国两种主要衡量方法中更准确、更客观的一种。

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5. Measuring Unemployment: The Claimant Count | 衡量失业的方法：申领者人数统计

The Claimant Count is the other major measure of unemployment used in the UK. It simply counts the number of people who are claiming unemployment-related benefits — specifically, those claiming Jobseeker’s Allowance (JSA) or Universal Credit and who are required to seek work as a condition of their claim.

申领者人数是英国使用的另一种主要失业衡量方法。它简单地统计领取失业相关福利的人数——具体而言，即领取求职者津贴（JSA）或统一福利金（Universal Credit）且以积极找工作为领取条件的人数。

This measure is based on administrative data rather than a survey. It is compiled monthly, making it timelier than the quarterly LFS. Additionally, the Claimant Count is not subject to sampling error because it attempts to include every eligible claimant.

这种衡量基于行政数据而非调查。它按月编制，因此比按季度的 LFS 更具及时性。此外，申领者人数不存在抽样误差，因为它试图包含所有符合条件的申领者。

However, the Claimant Count has significant weaknesses. It excludes unemployed people who are not eligible for benefits or who do not claim them — for example, those whose partner works, those with significant savings, or those who have been unemployed for a short period. Conversely, it may include some people who are technically working a few hours per week but still qualify for means-tested benefits. For these reasons, the Claimant Count frequently differs from the LFS unemployment figure.

然而，申领者人数统计有显著的缺陷。它排除了没有资格领取福利或未申领福利的失业者——例如，伴侣有工作的人、有大量储蓄的人，或失业时间较短的人。相反，它可能包含一些每周工作几小时但仍符合经济审查型福利资格的人。因此，申领者人数经常与 LFS 的失业数据存在差异。

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6. Comparing the Two Measures | 两种衡量方法的比较

The following table summarises the key differences between the Labour Force Survey and the Claimant Count:

下表总结了劳动力调查与申领者人数统计之间的主要区别：

Feature	Labour Force Survey	Claimant Count
Data source	Household sample survey	Administrative benefit records
Definition	ILO international standard	Benefit receipt plus work-search condition
Frequency	Quarterly	Monthly
Sampling error	Present	Absent
Inclusion of non-claimants	Yes — captures all jobseekers	No — only benefit claimants
Sensitivity to policy changes	Low	High — eligibility rules affect count

A student should be able to explain why the LFS and the Claimant Count can diverge. During a period of welfare reform when benefits become more difficult to claim, the Claimant Count may fall even if the true number of jobseekers has not changed. Similarly, in a booming economy, the LFS may show lower unemployment than the Claimant Count if many new workers are not eligible for benefits.

学生应当能够解释 LFS 与申领者人数为何会出现分歧。在福利改革使申领福利变得更加困难的时期，即使真正的求职者数量没有变化，申领者人数也可能会下降。类似地，在经济繁荣时期，如果许多新工人不具备福利资格，LFS 显示的失业率可能会低于申领者人数。

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7. Types of Unemployment | 失业的类型

While the definition and measurement of unemployment are the focus of this article, it is useful to recall the main categories of unemployment, as they help explain why measured unemployment rises and falls. Frictional unemployment arises from the time workers spend searching for new jobs. Structural unemployment occurs when there is a mismatch between workers’ skills and the skills demanded by available jobs, often due to technological change or the decline of certain industries. Cyclical (demand-deficient) unemployment results from a lack of aggregate demand during a recession. Finally, seasonal unemployment affects industries such as tourism and agriculture that experience predictable fluctuations in activity.

虽然本文的重点是失业的定义和衡量，但回顾失业的主要类别是有益的，因为它们有助于解释为什么衡量到的失业率会上升和下降。摩擦性失业源于工人寻找新工作所花费的时间。结构性失业出现在工人技能与现有工作所需技能不匹配时，通常由技术变革或某些行业衰退引起。周期性（需求不足型）失业是经济衰退期间总需求不足的结果。最后，季节性失业影响旅游和农业等行业，这些行业的活动呈现可预测的波动。

Understanding these categories helps policymakers decide which policy response is appropriate. For example, demand-side policies such as fiscal expansion may reduce cyclical unemployment but will do little to solve structural unemployment, which requires supply-side measures such as training programmes and labour market reform.

理解这些类别有助于决策者决定采取何种适当的政策回应。例如，财政扩张等需求侧政策可能减少周期性失业，但对解决结构性失业作用甚微，后者需要培训计划和劳动力市场改革等供给侧措施。

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8. Limitations of the Official Unemployment Figures | 官方失业数据的局限性

Even the best unemployment measure has limitations. One major issue is hidden unemployment — people who are not counted as unemployed but who would like to work. Discouraged workers are the clearest example: they have stopped actively searching for jobs, so they fall out of the labour force entirely. When the economy improves and they resume searching, the unemployment rate can paradoxically rise, because they re-enter the labour force as unemployed jobseekers.

即使是最好的失业衡量方法也有局限性。一个主要问题是隐性失业——即那些未被计为失业但希望工作的人。丧失信心的工人是最明显的例子：他们已经停止积极寻找工作，因此完全退出劳动力队伍。当经济好转、他们重新开始找工作时，失业率反而可能上升，这是悖论性的，因为他们以失业求职者的身份重新进入劳动力队伍。

Underemployment is another concern. This refers to workers who are employed but are working fewer hours than they would like, or who are working in jobs that do not fully utilise their skills. The standard unemployment rate counts these individuals as employed, thereby masking the degree of labour market slack. In economies with a large informal sector, such as many developing countries, official unemployment figures can be particularly misleading, as most workers cannot afford to be unemployed — they take any available informal work to survive.

不充分就业是另一个值得关注的问题。这指的是有工作但工作时间少于期望时长，或从事的工作未能充分利用其技能的工人。标准失业率将这些个体计为就业，从而掩盖了劳动力市场闲置的程度。在拥有大量非正规部门的经济体中，例如许多发展中国家，官方失业数据可能尤其具有误导性，因为大多数工人无法承担失业的代价——他们必须从事任何可获得的非正规工作来维持生计。

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9. The Natural Rate of Unemployment | 自然失业率

Closely related to the measurement issue is the concept of the natural rate of unemployment (also called the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment, or NAIRU). This is the rate of unemployment at which inflation is stable — the rate that prevails when the labour market is in equilibrium and only frictional and structural unemployment remain. Actual unemployment can deviate from the natural rate in the short run due to cyclical factors, but the natural rate itself can change over time as the structure of the economy evolves.

与衡量问题密切相关的是自然失业率的概念（也称为非加速通货膨胀失业率，即 NAIRU）。这是通货膨胀稳定时的失业率——即劳动力市场处于均衡状态、仅剩摩擦性和结构性失业时的水平。实际失业率在短期内可能因周期性因素偏离自然失业率，但自然失业率本身会随着经济结构的变化而随时间变化。

For example, if a country’s benefits system becomes more generous and longer-lasting, the natural rate may rise, as workers can afford to search for jobs for longer periods. Conversely, improvements in job-matching technology, such as online recruitment platforms, may lower the natural rate by reducing frictional unemployment. Students should be able to distinguish between the actual unemployment rate and the natural rate when analysing policy questions.

例如，如果一个国家的福利制度变得更加慷慨且持续时间更长，自然失业率可能会上升，因为工人有能力进行更长时间的求职。相反，匹配技术的改进，如在线招聘平台，可能通过减少摩擦性失业来降低自然失业率。学生在分析政策问题时，应当能够区分实际失业率与自然失业率。

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10. Why Accurate Measurement Matters | 为何准确衡量至关重要

The measurement of unemployment is not merely an academic exercise. Governments use unemployment statistics to guide macroeconomic policy: high cyclical unemployment may trigger expansionary fiscal or monetary policy, while low unemployment may signal inflationary pressure and prompt contractionary measures. Unemployment figures also determine the budgetary cost of welfare payments, as governments must allocate funds to support the jobless. Socially, unemployment is associated with poverty, poor health, and social unrest, making it a key indicator of national well-being.

失业的衡量不仅仅是学术练习。政府使用失业统计来指导宏观经济政策：高周期性失业可能触发扩张性财政或货币政策，而低失业率可能预示通胀压力，促使采取紧缩措施。失业数据还决定福利支付的预算成本，因为政府必须拨款支持失业者。在社会层面，失业与贫困、健康不良和社会动荡相关联，使其成为衡量国家福祉的关键指标。

Furthermore, accurate measurement is essential for international comparison. Organisations such as the ILO and the OECD standardise definitions so that unemployment rates across countries can be compared reliably. However, students should always be cautious: even with standardised definitions, differences in survey methodology, sample size, and the treatment of marginal groups can cause apparent differences in unemployment rates that do not reflect genuine economic differences.

此外，准确的衡量对于国际比较至关重要。国际劳工组织和经合组织等机构将定义标准化，以便可以可靠地比较各国之间的失业率。然而，学生应始终保持谨慎：即使定义标准化，调查方法、样本量以及对边缘群体的处理方式上的差异，也可能导致失业率的表面差异并不反映真实的经济差异。

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11. Exam-Style Points to Remember | 考试要点总结

To succeed in CIE A-Level Economics questions on this topic, students should remember the following key points. First, always state the ILO definition of unemployment: without a job, actively seeking work, and available to start within two weeks. Second, be able to write out the formula for the unemployment rate and explain why the denominator is the labour force rather than the working-age population. Third, compare and contrast the LFS and the Claimant Count, discussing their respective strengths and weaknesses.

要在 CIE A-Level 经济学考试中就这一主题获得高分，学生应记住以下要点。第一，始终陈述国际劳工组织的失业定义：没有工作、积极寻找工作、能在两周内开始工作。第二，能够写出失业率的公式，并解释为什么分母是劳动力而非劳动年龄人口。第三，比较和对比 LFS 与申领者人数统计，讨论各自的优势和劣势。

Fourth, discuss the limitations of unemployment statistics, including hidden unemployment, discouraged workers, and underemployment. Fifth, connect the measurement of unemployment to the types of unemployment — frictional, structural, cyclical, and seasonal — and explain which policies are appropriate for each. Finally, be prepared to analyse data or comment on real-world scenarios, such as why unemployment can rise during economic recovery.

第四，讨论失业统计的局限性，包括隐性失业、丧失信心的工人和不充分就业。第五，将失业的衡量与失业类型——摩擦性、结构性、周期性和季节性——联系起来，并解释哪种政策适用于哪种类型。最后，准备好分析数据或评论现实世界的情景，例如为什么失业率在经济复苏期间可能上升。

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12. Conclusion | 结论

The definition and measurement of unemployment are foundational topics in macroeconomics. While the ILO definition provides a clear and internationally comparable framework, no single measure perfectly captures the complexity of the labour market. The Labour Force Survey and the Claimant Count each offer distinct insights and suffer from distinct weaknesses. A thoughtful student will recognise that unemployment statistics are approximations — essential tools for policy, but tools that must be interpreted with care and an understanding of their limitations.

失业的定义与衡量是宏观经济学的奠基性主题。虽然国际劳工组织的定义提供了清晰且国际可比的框架，但没有单一的衡量方法能够完美捕捉劳动力市场的复杂性。劳动力调查和申领者人数统计各自提供不同的洞察，也各自有其弱点。善于思考的学生会认识到，失业统计数据是近似值——是政策制定的重要工具，但必须结合对其局限性的理解加以审慎解读。

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