Trade Unions in A-Level AQA Economics | A-Level AQA 经济：工会考点精讲

📚 Trade Unions in A-Level AQA Economics | A-Level AQA 经济：工会考点精讲

Trade unions are a vital institution in labour markets, yet their economic effects provoke lively debate. In AQA A-Level Economics, you need to understand how unions function, how they can influence wages and employment, and how these effects differ depending on market structure. This article unpacks key concepts, diagrams, theories, and evaluative angles you must master for the exam.

工会是劳动力市场中的一个重要制度，但其经济影响引发了激烈辩论。在 AQA A-Level 经济学中，你需要理解工会如何运作，它们如何影响工资和就业，以及这些影响如何因市场结构而不同。本文解析了你必须掌握的关键概念、图示、理论和评估角度，以应对考试。

1. What are Trade Unions? | 什么是工会？

Trade unions are organisations formed by workers to improve their pay, working conditions, and job security. They achieve this through collective bargaining with employers, representing a group of workers rather than individuals. Unions may also provide legal advice, training, and support for members. In the UK, unions range from large general unions like Unite to craft unions representing specific skills. They are a key institution in the labour market and their influence has varied over time with changes in legislation and the economy.

工会是由工人组成的组织，旨在通过集体行动改善薪酬、工作条件和工作保障。它们通过集体谈判与雇主协商，代表工人集体而非个人。工会还可能提供法律咨询、培训和对会员的支持。在英国，工会范围从大的一般工会如 Unite 到代表特定技能的手艺工会。它们是劳动力市场中的关键机构，其影响力随着立法和经济的变化而波动。

2. Objectives of Trade Unions | 工会的目标

The primary objectives of trade unions are to maximise the real wages of their members, improve non-wage benefits (such as holidays, pensions, and job security), and secure better working conditions. Unions also strive to increase employment for their members, but there is often a trade-off: pushing for higher wages may lead firms to hire fewer workers. Therefore, unions must balance wage objectives with employment levels. Additionally, unions may pursue wider economic and social goals, such as promoting equality and fair treatment at work.

工会的主要目标是最大化其成员的实际工资，改善非工资福利（如假期、养老金和工作保障），并争取更好的工作条件。工会还努力增加成员的就业，但通常存在权衡：推高工资可能导致企业雇佣更少的工人。因此，工会必须在工资目标与就业水平之间取得平衡。此外，工会可能追求更广泛的经济和社会目标，如促进工作中的平等和公平对待。

3. How Trade Unions Affect Wages in a Competitive Labour Market | 工会在竞争性劳动力市场中如何影响工资

In a perfectly competitive labour market, the equilibrium wage is determined by the intersection of labour supply and labour demand. If a union uses its monopoly power to set a wage above the equilibrium (for example, through collective bargaining or a minimum wage agreement), the wage becomes a price floor. At this higher wage, the quantity of labour supplied exceeds the quantity demanded, creating classical or real-wage unemployment. The union effectively restricts the supply of labour to its members (insiders), enabling them to earn a higher wage at the expense of outsiders who become unemployed.

在完全竞争的劳动力市场中，均衡工资由劳动力供给和劳动力需求的交点决定。如果工会利用其垄断力量将工资设定在均衡水平之上（例如，通过集体谈判或最低工资协议），该工资就成了价格下限。在这一较高的工资下，劳动力供给量超过需求量，从而造成古典或实际工资失业。工会有效地将劳动力供给限制于其成员（内部人），使他们能够获得更高的工资，但这以外部人失业为代价。

A simple diagram would show an upward-sloping labour supply curve and a downward-sloping labour demand curve. The union-imposed wage (Wu) lies above the equilibrium (We). The number of workers employed falls from Qe to Qd, while the number willing to work rises to Qs. The difference Qs – Qd represents the resulting unemployment. The union’s success in raising wages depends on the wage elasticity of demand for labour: the more inelastic the demand, the smaller the employment loss.

一幅简单的图示会显示向上倾斜的劳动力供给曲线和向下倾斜的劳动力需求曲线。工会设定的工资 (Wu) 高于均衡工资 (We)。就业工人数量从 Qe 下降到 Qd，而愿意工作的人数上升到 Qs。Qs 与 Qd 的差额即为造成的失业。工会提高工资的成功程度取决于劳动力需求的工资弹性：需求越缺乏弹性，就业损失就越小。

4. Factors Affecting the Union’s Wage-Boosting Power | 影响工会推动工资能力的因素

The ability of a trade union to raise wages without causing large job losses depends on several factors. First, the price elasticity of demand for the product: if demand for the final good is inelastic, firms can pass on higher wage costs to consumers in the form of higher prices, so employment falls less. Second, the elasticity of substitution between labour and capital: if it is difficult to replace workers with machines, labour demand is more inelastic. Third, union density and membership coverage; a higher proportion of unionised workers in an industry strengthens bargaining power. Fourth, the state of the economy: in a boom, labour demand is higher and firms may be more willing to pay higher wages. Finally, legal and institutional frameworks, such as the ease of taking industrial action, affect union influence.

工会能在不造成大量失业的情况下提高工资的能力取决于几个因素。首先，产品的需求价格弹性：如果最终产品的需求缺乏弹性，企业就能以较高价格的形式将较高的工资成本转嫁给消费者，因此就业下降较少。其次，劳动力与资本之间的替代弹性：如果用机器取代工人很困难，劳动力需求就更缺乏弹性。第三，工会密度和会员覆盖率；一个行业内工会化工人比例越高，谈判力越强。第四，经济状况：在繁荣时期，劳动力需求更高，企业可能更愿意支付较高工资。最后，法律和制度框架，如进行产业行动的难易程度，影响工会的影响力。

5. Trade Unions in a Monopsony Labour Market | 买方垄断劳动力市场中的工会

A monopsony is a market with a single buyer of labour. In such a market, the employer faces an upward-sloping labour supply curve and has the power to set wages below the competitive level. The monopsonist hires workers up to the point where the marginal cost of labour (MCL) equals the marginal revenue product of labour (MRPL), but pays the wage on the labour supply curve at that employment level. As a result, both wages and employment are lower than in a competitive market. In this context, a trade union can potentially counteract the monopsony power. By bargaining for a higher wage, a union may force the employer to pay a wage closer to the competitive level, and surprisingly, employment can also increase up to the competitive level if the union sets the wage exactly at the intersection of labour supply and MRPL.

买方垄断是劳动力市场上只有一个买方的市场。在这样的市场中，雇主面临向上倾斜的劳动力供给曲线，并有权将工资设定在竞争水平之下。买方垄断者将雇佣工人直到劳动力的边际成本 (MCL) 等于劳动力的边际收入产品 (MRPL)，在那一就业水平上支付劳动力供给曲线上的工资。结果，工资和就业都低于完全竞争市场。在这种情况下，工会可能能够抵消买方垄断力量。通过谈判争取更高工资，工会可以迫使雇主支付更接近竞争水平的工资，而且令人惊讶的是，如果工会将工资恰好设定在劳动力供给与 MRPL 曲线的交点，就业也可能增加到竞争水平。

This is a key evaluation point in AQA Economics: while unions are often criticised for causing unemployment in competitive markets, they can improve both wages and employment when employers have monopsony power. Examples include isolated areas with a dominant employer, such as a mining town or a large hospital in a rural area. The diagram for monopsony shows a kinked MCL curve above the labour supply; the union can negotiate a wage between the monopsony wage and the competitive wage, potentially eliminating the exploitation gap.

这是AQA 经济中的一个关键评估点：尽管在竞争市场中工会常因造成失业而受批评，但当雇主具有买方垄断力量时，它们可以同时提高工资和就业。例子包括拥有主导雇主的偏远地区，如矿业小镇或农村地区的一家大型医院。买方垄断图示显示高于劳动力供给的曲折 MCL 曲线；工会可以将工资谈判至买方垄断工资与竞争工资之间，从而可能消除剥削差距。

6. Collective Bargaining and Negotiation | 集体谈判与协商

Collective bargaining is the process by which unions negotiate with employers or employers’ associations over pay, hours and working conditions. The outcome may be a multi-year agreement covering all workers in a firm or sector. There are two main types of bargaining: coordinated bargaining, where unions and employers negotiate at an industry-wide level, and enterprise bargaining, which occurs at the firm or plant level. The latter has become more common as union membership has declined. Collective bargaining can lead to a wage premium for union members compared to non-union workers, estimated in some studies to be around 8-12% in the UK. However, the premium has narrowed in recent decades due to deregulation and increased competition.

集体谈判是工会与雇主或雇主协会就薪酬、工时和工作条件进行协商的过程。结果可能是一份涵盖企业或行业所有工人的多年协议。谈判主要有两种类型：协调式谈判，工会与雇主在整个行业层面进行协商；企业谈判，发生在企业或工厂层面。随着工会会员数量的下降，后者变得更加普遍。集体谈判可以导致工会会员相对于非工会工人享有工资溢价，一些研究估计英国约为 8-12%。然而，由于放松管制和竞争加剧，这一溢价近几十年来有所缩小。

7. Trade Union Density and Recent Trends | 工会密度与近年趋势

Trade union density measures the proportion of employees who are union members. In the UK, union density fell from a peak of around 13 million members (over 50% of workforce) in 1979 to about 6.5 million (around 23%) today. The decline has been driven by several factors: structural changes in the economy (decline of heavily unionised manufacturing and mining; growth of services and self-employment), legislative changes that reduced union legal protections and restricted closed shops, and changes in employer attitudes. Public sector union density remains significantly higher than in the private sector (over 50% vs under 15%). This has implications for the sectors where unions still hold bargaining power.

工会密度衡量的是雇员中工会会员的比例。在英国，工会密度从 1979 年高峰时的约 1300 万会员（占劳动力的 50% 以上）降至今天的约 650 万（约占 23%）。下降由几个因素驱动：经济结构变化（工会化程度高的制造业和采矿业衰落；服务业和自雇增长），立法变革降低了工会的法律保护并限制了封闭式工厂，以及雇主态度的变化。公共部门的工会密度仍远高于私营部门（超过 50% 对比低于 15%）。这对工会仍拥有谈判力的行业有影响。

8. Effects on Employment and Unemployment | 对就业与失业的影响

As already discussed, in competitive labour markets, a union-induced wage above equilibrium creates classical unemployment. However, the actual employment effect may be smaller if the union also restricts labour supply, e.g., through apprenticeship control or membership restrictions, which can shift the supply curve leftwards and raise the wage without reducing employment. Moreover, unions may negotiate productivity-enhancing deals that shift the labour demand curve to the right, offsetting job losses. In monopsony, unions can increase both wages and employment. The net effect depends on market structure, union strategy, and the institutional context.

如前所述，在竞争性劳动力市场中，工会导致的工资高于均衡将造成古典失业。然而，如果工会也限制劳动力供给，例如通过学徒控制或会员限制使供给曲线左移，提高工资而不减少就业，实际的就业效应可能较小。此外，工会可能协商提升生产率的协议，使劳动力需求曲线右移，抵消失业。在买方垄断下，工会可以同时提高工资和就业。净效应取决于市场结构、工会策略和制度背景。

Another effect is the potential for hysteresis: if workers remain unemployed for long periods, they may lose skills and become less employable, increasing the natural rate of unemployment. On the other hand, unions can provide a voice mechanism that reduces quitting and improves morale, lowering frictional unemployment. The AQA syllabus expects students to evaluate these trade-offs.

另一个影响是可能产生滞后效应：如果工人长期失业，他们可能失去技能、变得较难就业，从而提高自然失业率。另一方面，工会可以

Published by TutorHao | A-Level Economics Revision Series | aleveler.com

更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）

Trade Unions in A-Level AQA Economics | A-Level AQA 经济：工会 考点精讲