📚 Edexcel Physics: End-of-Term Revision Guide | Edexcel 物理：期末复习提纲
This revision guide lays out a structured checklist for Edexcel A Level Physics, helping you consolidate key concepts, practice essential equations, and sharpen exam technique before the end of term. Whether you are revising AS topics or tackling the full A Level, use this outline to identify gaps and focus your study time effectively.
本复习提纲要梳理了 Edexcel A Level 物理的结构化检查清单，帮助你在期末前巩固核心概念、练习关键方程并优化应试技巧。无论你是在复习 AS 内容还是冲刺完整 A Level，都可以利用这份提纲发现薄弱环节，有针对性地分配复习时间。
1. Mechanics and Motion | 力学与运动
Kinematics equations for constant acceleration are the backbone of motion analysis. Memorise the four SUVAT equations: v = u + at, s = ut + ½ at², s = ½ (u + v)t, and v² = u² + 2as. Identify the known and unknown variables in each problem, and always choose the equation that omits the unwanted quantity.
匀加速直线运动的运动学方程是分析运动的基础。牢记四个 SUVAT 方程：v = u + at, s = ut + ½ at², s = ½ (u + v)t 和 v² = u² + 2as。在每道题中识别已知量和未知量，始终选择不包含待求量以外变量的方程。
Projectile motion treats horizontal and vertical components independently. Horizontal velocity remains constant (assuming negligible air resistance), while vertical motion follows uniform acceleration under gravity. Resolve initial velocity into uₓ = u cos θ and uᵧ = u sin θ, then apply SUVAT separately. Time of flight links the two components.
抛体运动需要独立分析水平与竖直分量。水平速度保持恒定（忽略空气阻力），竖直运动遵循重力作用下的匀加速。将初速度分解为 uₓ = u cos θ 和 uᵧ = u sin θ，然后分别应用 SUVAT。飞行时间是联系两个分量的桥梁。
Motion graphs tell a visual story. Displacement–time graphs give velocity as the gradient; velocity–time graphs give acceleration as the gradient and displacement as the area under the graph. Practise sketching these graphs for bouncing ball, rocket launch and parachute scenarios.
运动图像能直观描述运动过程。位移-时间图的斜率为速度；速度-时间图的斜率为加速度，图线下方面积为位移。练习为弹跳球、火箭发射和降落伞情景绘制这些图像。
2. Forces, Energy and Power | 力、能量与功率
Newton’s laws govern all force interactions. First law: an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a resultant force. Second law: F = ma. Third law: forces between two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Always draw free-body diagrams to analyse forces acting on a single body.
牛顿定律支配着一切力的相互作用。第一定律：物体在不受外力作用时保持静止或匀速直线运动；第二定律：F = ma；第三定律：两个物体之间的作用力与反作用力大小相等、方向相反。分析单个物体受力时务必绘制受力分析图。
Energy conservation and work–energy principle. Kinetic energy Eₖ = ½ mv², gravitational potential energy Eₚ = mgΔh. The work done by a force is W = Fd cos θ. In a closed system, total energy is conserved, but energy can be dissipated as heat due to friction or air resistance. Link work done to changes in kinetic and potential energy.
能量守恒与功-能关系。动能 Eₖ = ½ mv²，重力势能 Eₚ = mgΔh。力做的功为 W = Fd cos θ。在封闭系统中总能量守恒，但能量可能因摩擦或空气阻力而耗散为热能。将功与动能、势能的变化联系起来。
Power and efficiency. Power = work done / time = Fv for constant velocity against a resistive force. Efficiency is useful energy output divided by total energy input, often expressed as a percentage. Be prepared to calculate overall efficiency from a Sankey diagram or a chain of energy transfers.
功率与效率。功率 = 做功 / 时间 = Fv（在克服恒定阻力的匀速运动中）。效率 = 有用能量输出 / 总能量输入，通常以百分比表示。会从能量流向图或一连串能量转换中计算总效率。
3. Materials | 材料学
Hooke’s law and elastic behaviour. For a spring, F = kΔL, where k is the spring constant. The elastic limit marks the point beyond which the material is permanently deformed. Understand the difference between elastic deformation (returns to original shape) and plastic deformation (permanent change).
胡克定律与弹性行为。对弹簧而言，F = kΔL，k 为劲度系数。弹性极限是材料发生永久变形的临界点。理解弹性形变（恢复原状）与塑性形变（永久改变）的区别。
Stress, strain and Young modulus. Stress σ = F/A, strain ε = ΔL/L₀. Young modulus E = stress/strain, measured in pascals (Pa). The gradient of a stress–strain graph in the linear region gives E. Identify brittle, ductile and polymeric materials from their characteristic stress–strain curves.
应力、应变与杨氏模量。应力 σ = F/A，应变 ε = ΔL/L₀。杨氏模量 E = 应力 / 应变，单位为帕斯卡 (Pa)。应力-应变图线弹性区域的斜率即为 E。能从典型应力-应变曲线辨别脆性、延展性和高分子材料。
Energy stored in a deformed material. The area under a force–extension graph represents work done. For elastic deformation within the limit of proportionality, elastic potential energy = ½ FΔL = ½ k(ΔL)². This energy is released when the spring recoils.
形变材料中储存的能量。力-伸长量图下方的面积代表做功。在比例极限内的弹性形变中，弹性势能 = ½ FΔL = ½ k(ΔL)²。弹簧恢复时释放该能量。
4. Waves and Optics | 波与光学
Wave properties and the wave equation. Transverse waves (e.g. light, water waves) oscillate perpendicular to energy transfer; longitudinal waves (e.g. sound) oscillate parallel. Wave speed v = fλ. Understand phase difference measured in radians or degrees.
波的性质与波动方程。横波（如光波、水波）的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直；纵波（如声波）的振动方向平行。波速 v = fλ。理解用弧度或度表示的相位差。
Superposition, interference and standing waves. When two coherent waves meet, constructive interference occurs when the path difference = nλ (phase diff = 0, 2π …), and destructive interference when path diff = (n + ½)λ. Standing waves form on strings and in pipes, with nodes and antinodes. Memorise the harmonics for open and closed pipes.
叠加、干涉与驻波。两列相干波相遇时，当波程差 = nλ 时发生相长干涉（相位差 = 0, 2π …），波程差 = (n + ½)λ 时发生相消干涉。驻波在弦和管内形成，具有波节和波腹。记熟开管与闭管的谐波模式。
Diffraction and the double-slit experiment. Young’s double-slit fringe spacing Δy = λD / a, where a is slit separation and D is slit-to-screen distance. A diffraction grating gives sharp maxima at d sin θ = nλ. The wave nature of light is confirmed by interference; the photoelectric effect demonstrates its particle nature.
衍射与双缝实验。杨氏双缝条纹间距 Δy = λD / a，a 为双缝间距，D 为缝到屏的距离。衍射光栅在满足 d sin θ = nλ 处产生清晰的极大值。干涉证实光的波动性；光电效应则展示其粒子性。
5. Electricity and Circuits | 电学与电路
Current, charge and potential difference. I = ΔQ / Δt, where 1 A = 1 C s⁻¹. Potential difference V = W / Q. Ohm’s law: V = IR at constant temperature. The I–V characteristics of a resistor, filament lamp and diode reveal ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour.
电流、电荷与电势差。I = ΔQ / Δt，1 A = 1 C s⁻¹。电势差 V = W / Q。欧姆定律：在恒温下 V = IR。电阻器、白炽灯和二极管的 I–V 特性可揭示欧姆和非欧姆行为。
Resistivity and circuits. Resistivity ρ = RA / L, where R is resistance, A is cross-sectional area, L is length. In series: Rₜ = R₁ + R₂, current same, voltage divides. In parallel: 1/Rₜ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂, voltage same, current divides. Use Kirchhoff’s laws for multi-loop circuits.
电阻率与电路。电阻率 ρ = RA / L，R 为电阻，A 为截面积，L 为长度。串联：Rₜ = R₁ + R₂，电流相同、电压分配。并联：1/Rₜ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂，电压相同、电流分配。多回路电路需用基尔霍夫定律求解。
Internal resistance and potential dividers. Terminal p.d. = ε − Ir, where ε is e.m.f. and r is internal resistance. A potential divider can provide a variable output voltage: V_out = V_in × (R₂ / R₁ + R₂). Use these concepts in sensor circuits with LDRs and thermistors.
内阻与分压器。端电压 = ε − Ir，ε 为电动势，r 为内阻。分压器可提供可变输出电压：V_out = V_in × (R₂ / R₁ + R₂)。将这类概念用于含光敏电阻和热敏电阻的传感器电路中。
6. Quantum and Particle Physics | 量子与粒子物理
Photon model and the photoelectric effect. E = hf = hc/λ. The photoelectric equation: hf = φ + Eₖ(max), where φ is the work function. The stopping potential experiment confirms that maximum kinetic energy depends only on frequency, not intensity. The threshold frequency f₀ = φ/h.
光子模型与光电效应。E = hf = hc/λ。光电方程：hf = φ + Eₖ(max)，φ 为功函数。遏止电压实验证实最大动能仅与频率有关，与光强无关。截止频率 f₀ = φ/h。
Wave–particle duality and spectra. Electrons show diffraction, confirming de Broglie wavelength λ = h/p. Line spectra arise from electron transitions between discrete energy levels: ΔE = hf. Absorption and emission spectra provide evidence for quantized atomic energy levels.
波粒二象性与光谱。电子衍射证实了德布罗意波长 λ = h/p。线状光谱源于电子在分立能级间的跃迁：ΔE = hf。吸收光谱和发射光谱为原子能级量子化提供了证据。
Particle classification and fundamental forces. Know the standard model: quarks (up, down, strange, charm, top, bottom) and leptons (electron, muon, tau, plus their neutrinos). Hadrons are quark composites; baryons (3 quarks) and mesons (quark–antiquark). Conservation rules: charge, baryon number, lepton number, strangeness (if strong interaction).
粒子分类与基本相互作用。掌握标准模型：夸克（上、下、奇、粲、顶、底）和轻子（电子、μ子、τ子及其对应的中微子）。强子由夸克组成；重子（3 夸克）和介子（夸克-反夸克对）。守恒律：电荷、重子数、轻子数、奇异数（针对强相互作用）。
7. Nuclear Physics | 核物理
Nuclear structure and decay. Nucleus contains protons and neutrons (nucleons). Atomic number Z = protons; mass number A = nucleons. Alpha decay reduces A by 4 and Z by 2. Beta-minus decay turns a neutron into a proton, emitting an electron and antineutrino; Z increases by 1, A unchanged. Gamma rays accompany many decays.
核结构与衰变。原子核包含质子和中子（核子）。原子序数 Z = 质子数；质量数 A = 核子数。α衰变使 A 减 4、Z 减 2。β⁻ 衰变将中子转化为质子，释放电子和反中微子；Z 增加 1，A 不变。许多衰变伴随 γ 射线。
Radioactive decay law. Activity A = −dN/dt = λN, where λ is the decay constant. N = N₀ e^(−λt). Half-life T½ = ln2 / λ. Use exponential equations to calculate remaining nuclei or corrected activity. Carbon dating is a key application of the decay law.
放射性衰变定律。活度 A = −dN/dt = λN，λ 为衰变常量。N = N₀ e^(−λt)。半衰期 T½ = ln2 / λ。用指数方程计算剩余核数或修正活度。碳-14 测年是衰变定律的重要应用。
Mass–energy equivalence and binding energy. Mass defect Δm = (Z mₚ + N mₙ) − M_nucleus. Binding energy E = Δm c². Binding energy per nucleon is a measure of stability; iron-56 has one of the highest values. Fusion and fission release energy by moving toward higher binding energy per nucleon.
质能等价与结合能。质量亏损 Δm = (Z mₚ + N mₙ) − M_nucleus。结合能 E = Δm c²。平均结合能是核稳定性的量度；铁-56 具有极高的平均结合能。聚变和裂变通过向更高平均结合能的方向移动而释放能量。
8. Fields and Capacitance | 场与电容
Gravitational fields. Newton’s law: F = −GMm/r². Field strength g = GM/r². Gravitational potential V_g = −GM/r, always negative. Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to field lines. Escape velocity vₑ = √(2GM/r). Use Kepler’s third law: T² ∝ r³ for satellite orbits.
引力场。牛顿万有引力定律：F = −GMm/r²。场强 g = GM/r²。引力势 V_g = −GM/r，恒为负值。等势面与场线垂直。逃逸速度 vₑ = √(2GM/r)。应用开普勒第三定律：卫星轨道的 T² ∝ r³。
Electric fields. Between parallel plates, uniform electric field strength E = V/d. Coulomb’s law: F = kQ₁Q₂/r². Field lines point from positive to negative. Electric potential V_E = kQ/r. Motion of charged particles in uniform electric fields follows parabolic paths, similar to projectile motion.
电场。平行板间匀强电场场强 E = V/d。库仑定律：F = kQ₁Q₂/r²。电场线由正指向负。电势 V_E = kQ/r。带电粒子在匀强电场中的运动轨迹类似抛体，呈抛物线。
Capacitance and energy storage. C = Q/V, unit farad (F). For a parallel-plate capacitor, C = ε₀εᵣ A/d. Energy stored U = ½ QV = ½ CV² = ½ Q²/C. Capacitor charging and discharging follow exponential curves: V = V₀ e^(−t/RC), time constant τ = RC. The half-life of discharge is RC ln2.
电容与储能。C = Q/V，单位法拉 (F)。平行板电容器 C = ε₀εᵣ A/d。储存能量 U = ½ QV = ½ CV² = ½ Q²/C。电容充放电遵循指数规律：V = V₀ e^(−t/RC)，时间常量 τ = RC。放电半衰期为 RC ln2。
9. Thermal Physics and Gases | 热物理与气体
Temperature, heat and internal energy. Temperature is related to the average random kinetic energy of particles. Absolute temperature in kelvin: T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.15. Specific heat capacity Q = mcΔθ, specific latent heat Q = mL. Internal energy is the sum of random kinetic and potential energies of particles.
温度、热量与内能。温度与粒子平均无规则动能相关。热力学温度单位开尔文：T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.15。比热容 Q = mcΔθ，比潜热 Q = mL。内能是粒子无规则动能与势能的总和。
Ideal gas laws and kinetic theory. Boyle’s law pV = constant, Charles’s law V/T = constant, pressure law p/T = constant. Combined: pV = nRT or pV = NkT. Kinetic theory links macro and micro: pV = ⅓ N m ⟨c²⟩, so average kinetic energy ∝ T. Root mean square speed c_rms = √(⟨c²⟩).
理想气体定律与分子动理论。玻意耳定律 pV = 常数，查理定律 V/T = 常数，压强定律 p/T = 常数。联合公式 pV = nRT 或 pV = NkT。分子动理论关联宏观与微观：pV = ⅓ N m ⟨c²⟩，因此平均动能 ∝ T。方均根速率 c_rms = √(⟨c²⟩)。
First law of thermodynamics. ΔU = Q − W, where W is work done by the system. For isothermal expansion, ΔU = 0, Q = W. For adiabatic change, Q = 0, ΔU = −W. p–V diagrams illustrate cycles such as the Carnot cycle; the area enclosed represents net work done.
热力学第一定律。ΔU = Q − W，W 为系统对外做功。等温膨胀时 ΔU = 0，Q = W。绝热变化时 Q = 0，ΔU = −W。p–V 图可展示卡诺循环等过程；图线围成的面积代表净功。
10. Experimental Skills and Data Analysis | 实验技能与数据分析
Measurement uncertainties and errors. Distinguish between random and systematic errors. Absolute uncertainty = ± half the smallest scale division (analogue) or ± smallest digital unit. Combine uncertainties: adding quantities → add absolute uncertainties; multiplying or dividing → add percentage uncertainties. Record results to consistent significant figures.
测量不确定度与误差。区分随机误差和系统误差。绝对不确定度 = ± 最小分度值的一半（模拟仪器）或 ± 最小数字单位（数字仪器）。不确定度合成：加减运算时绝对不确定度相加；乘除运算时百分不确定度相加。记录结果时有效数字需保持一致。
Graphical analysis and linearisation. Plot the independent variable on the x-axis. Draw lines of best fit and worst fit to estimate uncertainty in gradient and intercept. Linearise equations: e.g. y = kx^n becomes log y = log k + n log x. The gradient and intercept of a log–log plot yield n and k. For exponential decay, plot ln y against x.
图像分析与线性化。将自变量绘于 x 轴。绘制最佳拟合线和最差拟合线以估计斜率和截距的不确定度。线性化处理方程：如 y = kx^n 可转化为 log y = log k + n log x。对数坐标图中斜率和截距分别给出 n 和 k。对于指数衰减，绘制 ln y – x 图。
Evaluating methodology and safety. Always comment on precision, accuracy and possible sources of systematic error (e.g. parallax, zero error). Suggest improvements like repeating readings, using non-invasive sensors, or introducing control variables. Risk assessments should identify hazards such as hot surfaces, sharp edges and heavy masses.
评估方法与安全。始终对精密度、准确度以及可能的系统误差来源（如视差、调零误差）进行评述。提出改进措施，如重复读数、使用非侵入式传感器或引入控制变量。风险评估应识别热表面、锋利边缘和重物等危险源。
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