📚 IGCSE Economics Key Terms Glossary | IGCSE 经济学高频术语整理
Mastering the terminology is essential for success in IGCSE Economics. This glossary provides clear, concise definitions for the most frequently examined terms, organised by topic. Each entry is paired with a Chinese translation to support bilingual learners and deepen conceptual understanding.
掌握术语是学好IGCSE经济学的关键。这份高频术语表按主题整理，给出清晰简明的定义，并为每个术语配有中文解释，帮助双语学习者深入理解概念。
1. The Basic Economic Problem | 基本经济问题
Scarcity: The fundamental economic problem that arises because resources are limited while human wants are unlimited, forcing choices to be made.
稀缺性：因为资源有限而人类欲望无穷所产生的根本经济问题，迫使人们做出选择。
Opportunity Cost: The value of the next best alternative forgone when a choice is made.
机会成本：做出一种选择时所放弃的次优选项的价值。
Factors of Production: The resources used to produce goods and services: land, labour, capital, and enterprise.
生产要素：用于生产商品和服务的资源：土地、劳动、资本和企业家才能。
Economic Goods: Goods that are scarce relative to demand and therefore command a price; they involve an opportunity cost.
经济物品：相对于需求而言稀缺、因此有价格的物品；它们的获取涉及机会成本。
Free Goods: Goods that are abundant and available without opportunity cost, such as air or sunlight.
免费物品：充裕且获取时没有机会成本的物品，如空气或阳光。
2. Demand and Supply | 需求与供给
Demand: The quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at each possible price over a given period, ceteris paribus.
需求：在其他条件不变下，消费者在一定时期内，对某个商品或服务在不同价格水平上愿意并且能够购买的数量。
Supply: The quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and able to offer for sale at each possible price over a given period, ceteris paribus.
供给：在其他条件不变下，生产者在一定时期内愿意并且能够提供销售的商品或服务数量。
Equilibrium Price: The price at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied, so there is no tendency for change.
均衡价格：需求量等于供给量时的价格，此时没有变动的趋势。
Effective Demand: Demand backed by the ability to pay; it is not just a desire for a product.
有效需求：有支付能力支撑的需求，而不仅仅是对商品的渴望。
Excess Demand: A situation where quantity demanded exceeds quantity supplied at a given price, leading to upward pressure on price.
超额需求：在某价格下需求量大于供给量的状况，会给价格带来上升压力。
3. Elasticity | 弹性
Price Elasticity of Demand (PED): A measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in the good’s own price, calculated as % change in quantity demanded ÷ % change in price.
需求价格弹性（PED）：衡量需求量对商品自身价格变化的反应程度，公式为需求量变动百分比 ÷ 价格变动百分比。
Price Elasticity of Supply (PES): A measure of the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in price, calculated as % change in quantity supplied ÷ % change in price.
供给价格弹性（PES）：衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度，公式为供给量变动百分比 ÷ 价格变动百分比。
Income Elasticity of Demand (YED): A measure of how quantity demanded responds to changes in consumer income, calculated as % change in quantity demanded ÷ % change in income.
需求收入弹性（YED）：衡量需求量对消费者收入变化的反应程度，公式为需求量变动百分比 ÷ 收入变动百分比。
Cross Elasticity of Demand (XED): A measure of how quantity demanded of one good responds to a change in the price of another good, calculated as % change in quantity demanded of good A ÷ % change in price of good B.
需求交叉弹性（XED）：衡量一种商品的需求量对另一种商品价格变化的反应程度，公式为A商品需求量变动百分比 ÷ B商品价格变动百分比。
4. Market Structures | 市场结构
Perfect Competition: A market structure with many buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, perfect information, and no barriers to entry or exit. Firms are price takers.
完全竞争：拥有众多买者和卖者、同质产品、完全信息、没有进入或退出壁垒的市场结构。企业是价格接受者。
Monopoly: A market structure with a single seller that controls the market supply of a product with no close substitutes. The firm is a price maker.
垄断：只有一个卖者且该卖者控制着没有相近替代品的产品的市场供应。企业是价格制定者。
Oligopoly: A market dominated by a small number of large firms producing either differentiated or standardised products, with significant barriers to entry.
寡头垄断：由少数几家大企业主导的市场，它们生产差异化或标准化的产品，存在显著的进入壁垒。
Monopolistic Competition: A market structure with many firms producing differentiated products, low barriers to entry, and some degree of market power.
垄断竞争：众多企业生产差异化产品、进入壁垒相对较低且企业拥有一定程度市场势力的市场结构。
5. Market Failure | 市场失灵
Market Failure: A situation where the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently, leading to a net social welfare loss.
市场失灵：自由市场未能有效配置资源，从而导致社会净福利损失的情形。
Externality: A cost or benefit that affects a third party who is not directly involved in the economic transaction. Can be positive or negative.
外部性：影响未直接参与经济交易的第三方的成本或收益，可以是正的或负的。
Public Goods: Goods that are non-rivalrous and non-excludable, such as street lighting or national defence; they are typically underprovided by the free market.
公共物品：具有非竞争性和非排他性的物品，如路灯或国防；自由市场往往供给不足。
Merit Goods: Goods that are considered beneficial for individuals and society, but tend to be under-consumed if left to the free market because consumers do not fully appreciate their benefits, e.g. education, healthcare.
优值品：对个人和社会都有益的物品，但若由自由市场提供往往消费不足，因为消费者未充分认识其益处，如教育和医疗。
Demerit Goods: Goods that are harmful to individuals and society, but over-consumed in a free market because consumers ignore the full social costs, e.g. cigarettes, alcohol.
劣值品：对个人和社会有害的物品，但在自由市场中消费过多，因为消费者忽略了全部社会成本，如香烟和酒精。
6. Government Intervention | 政府干预
Indirect Tax: A tax levied on goods and services, which can be absorbed by the producer or passed on to the consumer. It is used to reduce consumption of demerit goods.
间接税：对商品和服务征收的税，可由生产者承担或转嫁给消费者。常用于减少劣值品消费。
Subsidy: A payment from the government to firms to lower production costs and increase supply, often used for merit goods.
补贴：政府向企业提供的支付，以降低生产成本、增加供给，通常用于优值品。
Maximum Price (Price Ceiling): A legal maximum price set by the government below the equilibrium, designed to protect consumers, but may cause shortages.
最高限价：政府设定的低于均衡价格的法定最高价格，旨在保护消费者，但可能导致短缺。
Minimum Price (Price Floor): A legal minimum price set by the government above the equilibrium, designed to protect producers, but may create surpluses.
最低限价：政府设定的高于均衡价格的法定最低价格，旨在保护生产者，但可能导致过剩。
Regulation: Rules and laws imposed by the government to control economic activities, such as prohibiting smoking in public places or limiting pollution emissions.
规制：政府为控制经济活动而制定的规则和法律，例如禁止在公共场所吸烟或限制污染排放。
7. Macroeconomic Objectives | 宏观经济目标
Economic Growth: An increase in the real output of an economy over time, usually measured by the percentage change in real GDP.
经济增长：经济体实际产出随时间的增长，通常用实际GDP的百分比变化来衡量。
Inflation: A sustained increase in the general level of prices in an economy, reducing the purchasing power of money.
通货膨胀：经济体中总体价格水平的持续上涨，降低了货币购买力。
Unemployment: The state of being willing and able to work but unable to find a job; the unemployment rate measures the proportion of the labour force in this situation.
失业：有工作意愿和能力却找不到工作的状态；失业率衡量劳动力中处于该状态的比例。
Balance of Payments: A record of all financial transactions between a country and the rest of the world over a period of time, consisting of the current account, capital account, and financial account.
国际收支：在一定时期内，一个国家与世界其他国家之间所有金融交易的记录，由经常账户、资本账户和金融账户组成。
8. Fiscal and Monetary Policy | 财政与货币政策
Fiscal Policy: The use of government spending and taxation to influence the level of economic activity and achieve macroeconomic goals.
财政政策：通过政府支出和税收来影响经济活动水平并实现宏观经济目标的手段。
Monetary Policy: The use of interest rates, money supply, or exchange rate adjustments by a central bank to control aggregate demand and inflation.
货币政策：中央银行利用利率、货币供应量或汇率调整来控制总需求和通货膨胀的手段。
Budget Deficit: The amount by which government spending exceeds tax revenue in a fiscal year.
预算赤字：一个财政年度内政府支出超过税收收入的数额。
Interest Rate: The cost of borrowing money or the reward for saving, expressed as a percentage of the amount borrowed or saved per year.
利率：借款的成本或储蓄的回报，以每年占借款额或储蓄额的百分比表示。
9. International Trade and Globalisation | 国际贸易与全球化
Absolute Advantage: When a country can produce a good using fewer resources than another country.
绝对优势：一个国家能用比另一个国家更少的资源生产某种商品。
Comparative Advantage: When a country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country; this forms the basis for mutually beneficial trade.
比较优势：一个国家以比另一个国家更低的机会成本生产某种商品；这是互利贸易的基础。
Tariff: A tax imposed on imported goods, designed to protect domestic industries or raise revenue.
关税：对进口商品征收的税，旨在保护国内产业或增加财政收入。
Exchange Rate: The price of one currency expressed in terms of another currency. It can be classified as fixed, floating, or managed.
汇率：以一种货币表示的另一种货币的价格，可以划分为固定汇率、浮动汇率和管理汇率。
Globalisation: The increasing integration and interdependence of national economies through trade, investment, migration, and technology transfer.
全球化：通过贸易、投资、移民和技术转移，各国经济日益融合和相互依存的过程。
10. Economic Development and Living Standards | 经济发展与生活水平
GDP per capita: The total market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a year divided by the population; a common indicator of average living standards.
人均国内生产总值：一国一年内生产的所有最终产品和服务的总市场价值除以人口数；它是衡量平均生活水平的常用指标。
Human Development Index (HDI): A composite index that measures a country’s average achievement in three basic dimensions: health (life expectancy), education, and standard of living (GNI per capita).
人类发展指数（HDI）：衡量一个国家在健康（预期寿命）、教育（受教育年限）和生活水平（人均GNI）三个基本方面平均成就的综合指数。
Poverty Line: The minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living in a given country. Absolute poverty measures those below a fixed threshold; relative poverty compares with the median income.
贫困线：在特定国家被认为达到体面生活水平所需的最低收入水平。绝对贫困衡量低于固定门槛的人群；相对贫困则与中位收入进行比较。
Inequality: The unequal distribution of income and wealth among individuals or households in an economy, often measured by the Gini coefficient.
不平等：经济体中个人或家庭之间收入和财富的不均匀分配，通常用基尼系数来衡量。
Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, balancing economic, social, and environmental goals.
可持续发展：既满足当代人需求，又不损害后代人满足其需求能力的发展，平衡经济、社会和环境目标。
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