📚 IGCSE OCR Chemistry: Mind Map Quick Revision | IGCSE OCR化学：思维导图速记
This mind map quick revision guide condenses the entire IGCSE OCR Chemistry syllabus into interconnected key ideas, helping you visualise links between topics and recall facts rapidly before the exam. Each section presents a core branch of chemistry with bullet-point concepts, so you can mentally map reactions, patterns and principles.
这篇思维导图速记将IGCSE OCR化学考纲浓缩为相互关联的核心思想，帮助你直观理解各主题间的联系，在考前快速回忆事实。每一节呈现化学的一个主要分支，以要点形式列出概念，让你在脑中构建反应、规律和原理的图谱。
1. States of Matter & Particle Theory | 物质状态与粒子理论
Particles in solids are tightly packed in a regular pattern, vibrating in fixed positions; they have the least energy.
固体中的粒子紧密排列成规则结构，在固定位置振动；它们能量最低。
Liquids have particles that are close but can slide past each other, taking the shape of the container.
液体粒子紧密但可相互滑动，呈容器形状。
Gases have particles far apart moving randomly at high speeds; gas pressure arises from collisions with container walls.
气体粒子相距很远，随机高速运动；气体压强来源于粒子与容器壁的碰撞。
Changes of state: melting (s → l), freezing (l → s), boiling/evaporation (l → g), condensation (g → l), sublimation (s ⇌ g).
状态变化：熔化（固→液）、凝固（液→固）、沸腾/蒸发（液→气）、冷凝（气→液）、升华（固⇌气）。
Diffusion is fastest in gases and increases with temperature because particles have more kinetic energy.
气体扩散最快，温度升高扩散加快，因为粒子动能增加。
2. Atomic Structure & Periodic Table | 原子结构与周期表
Atoms consist of a nucleus (protons + neutrons) surrounded by electrons in shells; atomic number Z = protons, mass number A = protons + neutrons.
原子由原子核（质子+中子）和核外电子壳层组成；原子序数Z=质子数，质量数A=质子数+中子数。
Electrons fill shells: 2, 8, 8 for the first 20 elements; outer shell electrons determine chemical properties.
电子填充规则：前20号元素按2,8,8分布；最外层电子决定化学性质。
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different neutron numbers; they have identical chemical properties but different physical properties.
同位素是质子数相同而中子数不同的同种元素原子；化学性质相同，物理性质不同。
The Periodic Table arranges elements by increasing atomic number; groups (vertical) have the same number of outer electrons, periods (horizontal) have the same number of shells.
周期表按原子序数递增排列；族（纵列）具有相同最外层电子数，周期（横行）具有相同电子层数。
Group 1: alkali metals – reactivity increases down the group, react with water to form alkaline hydroxides + hydrogen; Group 7: halogens – reactivity decreases down the group, form -1 ions; Group 8/0: noble gases – unreactive, full outer shells.
第1族：碱金属——向下反应性增强，与水反应生成碱性氢氧化物和氢气；第7族：卤素——向下反应性减弱，形成-1价离子；第8/0族：惰性气体——不活泼，全满外壳。
Metals vs non-metals: metals tend to lose electrons to form positive ions, are malleable, conduct electricity; non-metals gain electrons, are brittle insulators.
金属与非金属：金属易失去电子形成正离子，有延展性，导电；非金属易得电子，脆而不导电。
3. Chemical Bonding & Structures | 化学键与结构
Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals via electron transfer, forming giant ionic lattices. High melting points, conduct electricity when molten or dissolved.
离子键通过金属与非金属之间的电子转移形成，构成巨型离子晶格。熔沸点高，熔融或溶解时导电。
Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between non-metals. Simple molecular substances have low melting points, do not conduct. Giant covalent structures (diamond, graphite, SiO₂) have very high melting points.
共价键是非金属原子间共享电子对。简单分子物质熔沸点低，不导电。巨型共价结构（金刚石、石墨、二氧化硅）熔沸点极高。
Diamond: each carbon bonded to four others tetrahedrally, hard, insulator. Graphite: layers of hexagonal rings, each carbon bonded to three, one delocalised electron per C, conducts electricity, slippery (lubricant).
金刚石：每个碳与四个碳形成四面体键，极硬，绝缘体。石墨：六边形层状结构，每个碳连三个碳，一个离域电子，导电，光滑（润滑剂）。
Metallic bonding: positive metal ions in a sea of delocalised electrons; malleable, ductile, conduct heat and electricity.
金属键：正金属离子沉浸在离域电子海洋中；具延展性、导电导热。
Electronegativity influences bond polarity; ionic and covalent can be viewed as extremes with polar covalent in between.
电负性影响键的极性；离子键和共价键可视为极端，极性共价键介于其间。
4. Formulae, Equations & Moles | 化学式、方程式与摩尔
Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) is the weighted average mass of an atom compared to 1/12th of carbon-12. Relative formula mass (Mᵣ) adds up Aᵣ of all atoms in the formula.
相对原子质量（Aᵣ）是原子质量与碳-12质量的1/12的比值加权平均。相对式量（Mᵣ）等于化学式中所有原子Aᵣ之和。
Mole: one mole contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles; mole = mass / Mᵣ; concentration (mol/dm³) = moles / volume (dm³).
摩尔：1摩尔含6.02×10²³个粒子；摩尔数=质量/Mᵣ；浓度(mol/dm³)=摩尔数/体积(dm³)。
Empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms; molecular formula is the actual number of atoms in a molecule.
实验式是原子最简整数比；分子式是分子中实际原子个数。
Reacting mass calculations: use mole ratios from balanced equations to find masses of reactants or products.
反应质量计算：利用配平方程式的摩尔比求反应物或生成物质量。
Percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%; atom economy = (Mᵣ of desired product / total Mᵣ of reactants) × 100%.
产率百分数 = (实际产量/理论产量)×100%；原子经济性 = (所需产物Mᵣ / 反应物总Mᵣ)×100%。
Gas volumes at RTP (room temperature and pressure): 1 mole of any gas occupies 24 dm³.
在室温常压(RTP)下：1摩尔任何气体体积为24 dm³。
5. Electrolysis & Energy Changes | 电解与能量变化
Electrolysis splits ionic compounds using direct current; cations migrate to cathode (-), anions to anode (+).
电解用直流电分解离子化合物；阳离子移向阴极(-)，阴离子移向阳极(+)。
In molten lead(II) bromide: Pb²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Pb at cathode; 2Br⁻ → Br₂ + 2e⁻ at anode.
熔融溴化铅中：阴极 Pb²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Pb；阳极 2Br⁻ → Br₂ + 2e⁻。
Aqueous solutions: at cathode, less reactive metal or hydrogen forms; at anode, halide ions > hydroxide > other anions for discharge. Example: NaCl(aq) gives H₂ at cathode, Cl₂ at anode plus NaOH in solution.
水溶液中：阴极析出较不活泼的金属或氢气；阳极放电顺序 卤离子 > 氢氧根 > 其他阴离子。例如 NaCl(aq) 阴极产生H₂，阳极产生Cl₂，溶液中剩余NaOH。
Electroplating uses electrolysis to coat an object with a thin layer of metal; object is the cathode, plating metal is the anode.
电镀用电解在物体表面覆盖薄金属层；物件为阴极，镀层金属为阳极。
Exothermic reactions release heat (ΔH negative), e.g., combustion, neutralisation; endothermic reactions absorb heat (ΔH positive), e.g., thermal decomposition, photosynthesis.
放热反应释放热量（ΔH为负），如燃烧、中和；吸热反应吸收热量（ΔH为正），如热分解、光合作用。
Bond breaking is endothermic, bond making is exothermic; overall enthalpy change = Σ(bond energies broken) – Σ(bond energies made).
断键吸热，成键放热；总焓变 = Σ(断裂键能) – Σ(形成键能)。
6. Rates of Reaction & Equilibria | 反应速率与平衡
Factors affecting rate: temperature, concentration, surface area, pressure (gases), catalyst. They increase frequency and/or energy of collisions.
影响速率的因素：温度、浓度、表面积、压强（气体）、催化剂。它们提高了碰撞频率和/或能量。
Catalyst lowers activation energy, providing an alternative pathway; not consumed. Enzymes are biological catalysts.
催化剂降低活化能，提供替代路径；自身不被消耗。酶是生物催化剂。
Reversible reactions reach dynamic equilibrium when forward and backward rates are equal; at equilibrium, concentrations remain constant but reactions continue.
可逆反应达到动态平衡时正逆速率相等；平衡时浓度不变，但反应仍在进行。
Le Chatelier’s principle: if a system at equilibrium is disturbed, it shifts to oppose the change. Increasing temperature favours endothermic direction; increasing pressure favours side with fewer gas molecules.
勒夏特列原理：平衡系统受到扰动时，会向减弱变化的方向移动。升温有利于吸热方向；加压有利于气体分子数少的一侧。
Haber process: N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃; conditions: 450°C, 200 atm, iron catalyst; a compromise yield, rate, and cost.
哈伯法：N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃；条件：450°C，200 atm，铁催化剂；是产率、速率与成本的折中。
7. Acids, Bases & Salts | 酸、碱和盐
Acids are proton (H⁺) donors; common lab acids: HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃. Bases are proton acceptors; alkalis are soluble bases that release OH⁻ in water.
酸是质子（H⁺）给予体；常用实验室酸：HCl，H₂SO₄，HNO₃。碱是质子接受体；可溶碱在水中释放OH⁻，称为碱溶液。
pH scale: 0-14; <7 acidic, 7 neutral, >7 alkaline. Universal indicator shows colour changes; pH is a measure of H⁺ concentration.
pH范围0-14；<7酸性，7中性，>7碱性。万用指示剂显示颜色变化；pH衡量H⁺浓度。
Neutralisation: acid + base → salt + water; e.g., HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O. Titration determines volumes needed for complete neutralisation using an indicator.
中和反应：酸 + 碱 → 盐 + 水；如 HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O。滴定使用指示剂确定完全中和所需体积。
Making soluble salts: acid + metal/insoluble base/carbonate; filtration + crystallisation. Precipitation for insoluble salts: mix two solutions containing the desired ions, filter.
可溶盐制备：酸 + 金属/不溶性碱/碳酸盐；过滤+结晶。沉淀法制不溶性盐：混合含所需离子的两种溶液，过滤。
Strong acids fully ionise in water (HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃); weak acids partially ionise (CH₃COOH, citric acid).
强酸在水中完全电离（HCl，H₂SO₄，HNO₃）；弱酸部分电离（CH₃COOH，柠檬酸）。
8. Metals & Reactivity Series | 金属与活动性顺序
Reactivity series: K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > (C) > Zn > Fe > (H) > Cu > Ag > Au. Metals above H react with acids to produce H₂; those above C must be extracted by electrolysis rather than carbon reduction.
活动性顺序：K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > (C) > Zn > Fe > (H) > Cu > Ag > Au。位于H之前的金属与酸反应生成H₂；位于C之前的金属须用电解法提取，而非碳还原。
Displacement reactions: a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compound. Thermite reaction: Al + Fe₂O₃ → Al₂O₃ + Fe, highly exothermic.
置换反应：较活泼金属将较不活泼金属从其化合物中置换。铝热反应：Al + Fe₂O₃ → Al₂O₃ + Fe，高放热。
Rusting of iron requires oxygen and water; prevention: painting, oiling, galvanising (zinc coating), sacrificial protection (more reactive metal attached).
铁生锈需水和氧气；防护：涂漆、涂油、镀锌（锌层）、牺牲保护（连接更活泼金属）。
Alloys are mixtures of metals (or metals with non-metals) with different properties; e.g., steel = iron + carbon, harder; brass = copper + zinc, corrosion-resistant.
合金是金属（或金属与非金属）的混合物，性能不同；如钢=铁+碳更硬，黄铜=铜+锌耐腐蚀。
Blast furnace for iron extraction: Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂; limestone removes impurities as slag.
高炉炼铁：Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂；石灰石除去杂质生成炉渣。
9. Air, Water & The Environment | 空气、水与环境
Air composition: N₂ ~78%, O₂ ~21%, Ar ~0.9%, CO₂ ~0.04%. Fractional distillation of liquid air separates N₂, O₂, Ar based on boiling points.
空气组成：N₂~78%，O₂~21%，Ar~0.9%，CO₂~0.04%。液态空气分馏根据沸点不同分离N₂、O₂、Ar。
Combustion: complete combustion of hydrocarbons produces CO₂ + H₂O; incomplete combustion produces CO or C (soot) due to limited O₂.
燃烧：烃完全燃烧生成CO₂ + H₂O；氧气不足时不完全燃烧产生CO或C（烟灰）。
Greenhouse effect: CO₂, methane, water vapour trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Acid rain: SO₂ and NOₓ from fossil fuels dissolve in rain, damaging ecosystems and buildings.
温室效应：CO₂、甲烷、水蒸气在大气中截留热量，导致全球变暖。酸雨：化石燃料产生的SO₂和NOₓ溶于雨水，危害生态和建筑。
Catalytic converter removes CO, NOₓ, and unburnt hydrocarbons from car exhaust: 2CO + 2NO → 2CO₂ + N₂.
催化转化器消除汽车尾气中的CO、NOₓ和未燃烧烃：2CO + 2NO → 2CO₂ + N₂。
Water treatment: sedimentation, filtration, chlorination to kill bacteria; desalination (distillation or reverse osmosis) for fresh water from seawater.
水处理：沉淀、过滤、加氯杀菌；海水淡化（蒸馏或反渗透）获取淡水。
10. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学
Hydrocarbons: alkanes (CₙH₂ₙ₊₂) are saturated, CnH₂n alkenes are unsaturated with C=C double bond. Functional groups define homologous series.
烃：烷烃 （CₙH₂ₙ₊₂）是饱和烃，烯烃（CnH₂n）是不饱和烃含C=C双键。官能团定义同系物系列。
Alkanes undergo substitution with halogens (UV light); e.g., CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl. Alkanes used as fuels.
烷烃与卤素在紫外光下发生取代反应；如CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl。烷烃用作燃料。
Alkenes undergo addition: Br₂ water decolourises (test for unsaturation); hydrogenation, hydration to form alcohols, polymerisation.
烯烃发生加成反应：溴水褪色（不饱和检验）；加氢、水合生成醇、聚合。
Alcohols (R–OH): ethanol from fermentation (glucose → ethanol + CO₂, yeast, 30°C) or hydration of ethene. Alcohols oxidise to carboxylic acids.
醇（R–OH）：乙醇可由发酵（葡萄糖→乙醇+CO₂，酵母，30°C）或乙烯水合制得。醇氧化生成羧酸。
Carboxylic acids (R–COOH): weak acids, react with alcohols to form esters (R–COO–R’) + water, in the presence of acid catalyst. Esters have fruity smells, used in perfumes and flavourings.
羧酸（R–COOH）：弱酸，与醇在酸催化下反应生成酯（R–COO–R’）和水。酯有水果香味，用于香水和调味。
Polymers: addition polymerisation of alkenes forms poly(ethene), poly(propene); condensation polymerisation produces polyesters, which can be biodegradable. Plastics: disposal issues, recycling.
聚合物：烯烃加成聚合生成聚乙烯、聚丙烯；缩聚生成聚酯，可生物降解。塑料：处理问题，回收。
11. Analytical Techniques | 分析技术
Flame tests identify metal ions: Li⁺ crimson, Na⁺ yellow, K⁺ lilac, Ca²⁺ orange-red, Cu²⁺ blue-green. Sodium hydroxide test: many metal ions form coloured precipitates.
焰色反应鉴定金属离子：Li⁺深红，Na⁺黄，K⁺淡紫，Ca²⁺橙红，Cu²⁺蓝绿。氢氧化钠测试：许多金属离子形成有色沉淀。
Cation tests with NaOH: Fe²⁺ green ppt, Fe³⁺ brown ppt, Cu²⁺ blue ppt; Al³⁺, Zn²⁺ white ppt soluble in excess NaOH. Ammonium ions produce NH₃ on warming with NaOH.
NaOH检测阳离子：Fe²⁺绿沉，Fe³⁺棕沉，Cu²⁺蓝沉；Al³⁺、Zn²⁺白色沉淀溶于过量NaOH。铵根离子与NaOH加热放出NH₃。
Anion tests: carbonate (CO₃²⁻) + acid → CO₂ (limewater milky); sulfate (SO₄²⁻) + BaCl₂/HCl → white BaSO₄ ppt; halides (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻) + AgNO₃/HNO₃ → AgCl white, AgBr cream, AgI yellow.
阴离子检验：碳酸根（CO₃²⁻）+酸→CO₂（石灰水变浑浊）；硫酸根（SO₄²⁻）+BaCl₂/HCl→白色BaSO₄沉淀；卤离子（Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻）+AgNO₃/HNO₃→AgCl白，AgBr奶油色，AgI黄色。
Gas tests: O₂ relights glowing splint; H₂ burns with squeaky pop; CO₂ turns limewater milky; Cl₂ bleaches damp litmus paper; NH₃ turns damp red litmus blue.
气体检验：O₂使带火星木条复燃；H₂燃烧发出爆鸣声；CO₂使石灰水变浑浊；Cl₂使湿润石蕊试纸漂白；NH₃使湿润红色石蕊试纸变蓝。
Chromatography separates mixtures based on solubility and adsorption; Rf value = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent. Instrumental methods: mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy for accurate analysis.
色谱法基于溶解度和吸附能力分离混合物；Rf值=物质移动距离/溶剂移动距离。仪器分析：质谱、红外光谱用于精确分析。
12. Practical Skills & Safety | 实验技能与安全
Common apparatus: beaker, conical flask, measuring cylinder, burette, pipette, thermometer, Bunsen burner. Measuring variables: mass balance, stopwatch, gas syringe.
常用仪器：烧杯、锥形瓶、量筒、滴定管、移液管、温度计、本生灯。测量变量：天平、秒表、气体注射器。
Safety: wear goggles, tie back long hair, avoid flammable substances near open flame, handle acids/alkalis with care, use fume cupboard for toxic gases. Hazard symbols: corrosive, toxic, flammable, oxidising, environmental hazard.
安全：戴护目镜，束起长发，明火旁避免易燃物，小心处理酸碱，有毒气体用通风橱。危险标志：腐蚀性、有毒、易燃、氧化性、环境危害。
Obtaining pure dry crystals: dissolve, filter, evaporate water gently (heating to crystallising point), then leave to crystallise, filter and dry between filter papers.
获取纯净干燥晶体：溶解、过滤、缓慢加热蒸发至结晶点，冷却结晶，过滤，在滤纸间干燥。
Planning investigations: independent variable (changed), dependent variable (measured), control variables (kept constant), fair test. Repeat experiments for reliability, calculate mean, identify anomalies.
实验计划：自变量（改变）、因变量（测量）、控制变量（保持不变）、公平测试。重复实验求可靠，计算平均值，识别异常值。
Titration technique: rinse burette with solution, fill below tap, no air bubbles; use few drops of indicator, swirl flask, read meniscus at eye level. Concordant results within 0.1 cm³.
滴定技术：用溶液润洗滴定管，装满至活塞下，无气泡；加几滴指示剂，旋转烧瓶，与视线水平读弯月面。平行结果相差在0.1 cm³以内。
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