📚 IGCSE OCR Economics: Experiment Operation Guide | IGCSE OCR 经济：实验操作指南
Economic theory often feels abstract, but classroom experiments bring it to life. This guide equips IGCSE OCR Economics students with step-by-step instructions for conducting simple yet powerful experiments that illustrate core concepts such as supply and demand, elasticity, market structures and trade. Each experiment is linked to the OCR syllabus, enabling learners to see textbook models in action and sharpen their analytical skills.
经济理论常常显得抽象，而课堂实验能让它变得生动具体。本指南为 IGCSE OCR 经济学的学生提供了逐步操作指导，帮助他们开展简单但有效的实验，从而直观展示供求、弹性、市场结构及贸易等核心概念。每个实验都与 OCR 教学大纲相关联，让学习者亲眼看到课本模型在现实中运作，并锻炼他们的分析能力。
1. Introduction to Economic Experiments | 经济实验简介
An economic experiment is a controlled activity in which participants make decisions based on incentives, resources and rules. Unlike natural science labs, economics experiments use human subjects to test behavioural predictions and market outcomes. The goal is to observe whether the theoretical equilibrium or predictions hold in a simplified setting.
经济实验是一种受控活动，参与者根据激励、资源和规则做出决策。与自然科学实验不同，经济学实验使用人类受试者来检验行为预测和市场结果。其目的是观察在简化环境下理论均衡或预测是否成立。
In IGCSE OCR Economics, any interactive simulation that generates data on prices, quantities or welfare can be treated as an experiment. Even a simple classroom role-play counts if it captures the essence of supply and demand, elasticity or market failure. This guide provides ready-to-run experiments requiring minimal materials.
在 IGCSE OCR 经济学中，任何生成价格、数量或福利数据的互动模拟都可视为实验。即便是简单的课堂角色扮演，只要抓住了供求、弹性或市场失灵的本质，就符合实验要求。本指南提供了即用型实验方案，所需材料极少。
2. Why Experiments Matter in IGCSE Economics | 实验在 IGCSE 经济学中的重要性
IGCSE OCR Economics assesses both knowledge and application. Experimental activities directly build the skills of analysing cause and effect, interpreting data and evaluating real-world relevance. When students negotiate prices in a simulated market, they feel the tension of surplus and shortage, making the concepts of equilibrium and disequilibrium unforgettable.
IGCSE OCR 经济学既考查知识也考查应用。实验活动直接培养了分析因果关系、解读数据和评价现实相关性的能力。当学生在模拟市场中协商价格时，他们会切身感受到过剩与短缺的压力，这让均衡和非均衡的概念变得难以忘怀。
Moreover, experiments encourage critical thinking about assumptions – such as perfect information or rational behaviour – which is essential for high-mark evaluation questions. The OCR specification (J205) frequently asks candidates to ‘assess the usefulness’ or ‘evaluate’ policies; experience from experiments provides concrete examples to draw on.
此外，实验鼓励学生对假设（如完全信息或理性行为）进行批判性思考，这对高分评估题至关重要。OCR 大纲 (J205) 经常要求考生“评估有效性”或“评价政策”；实验经验为他们提供了可借鉴的具体实例。
3. Key Concepts for Experimental Design | 实验设计的关键概念
To run a valid economic experiment, you must define the market setting, the endowment of participants and the rules of exchange. Key elements include: a clear good or service being traded, buyers’ willingness to pay (reservation prices) and sellers’ costs, trading protocol (double oral auction, posted offer, etc.), and the currency or points used.
要开展有效的经济实验，必须界定市场环境、参与者的禀赋以及交易规则。关键要素包括：被交易的明确商品或服务、买家的支付意愿（保留价格）和卖家的成本、交易规程（双向口头拍卖、明码标价等），以及所使用的货币或积分。
Experimental design must also control for extraneous variables so that observed outcomes can be attributed to the treatment. For instance, when testing the effect of a tax, keep all other factors identical between the baseline and tax rounds. Document the procedure, data collected and any unexpected behaviour, as these notes form excellent revision material.
实验设计还必须控制无关变量，以便观察到的结果可归因于处理因素。例如，在测试税收效应时，应保持基线回合和税收回合之间所有其他因素一致。记录操作步骤、收集的数据和任何意外行为，因为这些笔记构成了极好的复习材料。
4. Experiment 1: Simulating a Competitive Market | 实验一：模拟完全竞争市场
Objective: To observe how the interaction of buyers and sellers determines the market-clearing price and quantity.
目标：观察买方和卖方的互动如何决定市场出清价格和数量。
Setup: Prepare two sets of index cards. Half the class are buyers; each receives a card showing a maximum willingness to pay (e.g. £8, £7, £6, £5, £4). The other half are sellers; each receives a card showing a minimum acceptable price or cost (e.g. £3, £4, £5, £6, £7). Distribute cards so that the theoretical equilibrium is around £5 with 3–4 units traded. Do not reveal the distribution to students.
设置：准备两套索引卡。一半学生为买方，每人得到一张标注最高支付意愿的卡片（如 8 英镑、7 英镑、6 英镑、5 英镑、4 英镑）。另一半为卖方，每人得到一张标注最低可接受价格或成本的卡片（如 3 英镑、4 英镑、5 英镑、6 英镑、7 英镑）。分发卡片时应使理论均衡价格约在 5 英镑，交易量为 3–4 单位。不要向学生透露分布情况。
Procedure: Allow 5–7 minutes of open trading. Buyers try to buy at a price below their valuation; sellers try to sell above their cost. When a deal is agreed, both report the price and quantity to the teacher. Record all transactions on the board. At the end, calculate the average price and total quantity traded.
步骤：允许 5–7 分钟的自由交易。买家试图以低于其估值的价格购买；卖家试图以高于其成本的价格出售。达成交易后，双方将价格和数量报告给教师。将所有交易记录在黑板上。结束时计算平均价格和总交易量。
IGCSE link: This mirrors OCR topics 2.2 Demand, 2.3 Supply and 2.7 Price Determination. After the experiment, plot the market demand and supply curves using the reservation prices and costs. Identify the equilibrium and compare with the actual trading outcome. Discuss why the transaction prices clustered around the theoretical equilibrium.
IGCSE 关联：该实验对应 OCR 主题 2.2 需求、2.3 供给和 2.7 价格决定。实验后，用保留价格和成本绘制市场需求和供给曲线。确定均衡点并与实际交易结果比较。讨论为什么成交价格聚集在理论均衡附近。
5. Experiment 2: Price Elasticity of Demand in Action | 实验二：需求价格弹性实践
Objective: To measure how responsive quantity demanded is to a change in price for two different goods, thereby illustrating elastic and inelastic demand.
目标：衡量两种不同商品的需求量对价格变化的反应程度，从而说明富有弹性和缺乏弹性的需求。
Setup: Choose two items: a necessity (e.g. bottled water) and a luxury substitute (e.g. branded chocolate). Give each student a hypothetical £5 budget. Present a baseline price for each item—say water at £1 and chocolate at £1.50—and ask them to record how many units they would buy per week. Then increase the price of each good by 20% while keeping the other good’s price unchanged, and ask for the new quantities demanded.
设置：选择两种物品：一种必需品（如瓶装水）和一种奢侈品替代品（如品牌巧克力）。给每位学生 5 英镑的假设预算。出示每种物品的初始价格——假设水 1 英镑，巧克力 1.50 英镑——并要求他们记录每周会购买的数量。然后将每种商品的价格提高 20%，同时保持另一种商品的价格不变，再询问新的需求量。
Calculation: Collect the class totals. Compute the percentage change in quantity demanded for each good and divide by the percentage change in price.
PED = (%Δ Qd) ÷ (%Δ P)
计算：收集班级总数。计算每种商品需求量的百分比变化，并除以价格的百分比变化。
价格弹性 = 需求量变化百分比 ÷ 价格变化百分比
Expected outcome: Water should have a PED less than 1 (inelastic) because it is a necessity with few close substitutes, while chocolate often shows a PED greater than 1 (elastic). Discuss why businesses need elasticity estimates when setting prices (OCR 2.8).
预期结果：水的 PED 应小于 1（缺乏弹性），因为它是必需品且没有近似替代品，而巧克力通常表现出大于 1 的 PED（富有弹性）。讨论企业在制定价格时为何需要弹性估算（OCR 2.8）。
6. Experiment 3: The Prisoner’s Dilemma and Oligopoly | 实验三：囚徒困境与寡头垄断
Objective: To demonstrate why collusion among oligopolists is inherently unstable, using the classic prisoner’s dilemma payoff structure.
目标：利用经典的囚徒困境收益结构，演示寡头之间为何固有的共谋不稳定。
Setup: Pair up students. Each pair represents a firm in a duopoly deciding between a ‘High Price’ (cooperate) and a ‘Low Price’ (cheat). Show the following payoff matrix (profits in £ million):
| Firm B High Price (合作高价) | Firm B Low Price (欺骗低价) | |
|---|---|---|
| Firm A High Price (合作高价) | A: 800, B: 800 | A: 300, B: 1200 |
| Firm A Low Price (欺骗低价) | A: 1200, B: 300 | A: 500, B: 500 |
Procedure: Each pair discusses secretly and writes down their chosen price. Reveal decisions simultaneously. Repeat for 3–5 rounds. In early rounds, many pairs try to collude on high price, but as low-price choices yield higher individual payoffs, defection becomes common. The Nash equilibrium is both choosing Low Price (500, 500), which is worse than mutual cooperation (800, 800).
步骤：每对学生秘密讨论并写下所选价格。同时公布决策。重复 3–5 轮。在最初几轮，许多组会尝试勾结维持高价，但由于低价选择带来更高的个人收益，背叛变得普遍。纳什均衡是双方都选择低价 (500, 500)，这比相互合作 (800, 800) 的结果更差。
IGCSE link: Connect to OCR 3.4 Market Structures, particularly oligopoly and the kinked demand curve. Students can explain why price wars occur and how game theory helps understand interdependent decision-making. Discuss the role of competition policy.
IGCSE 关联：联系 OCR 3.4 市场结构，尤其是寡头和弯折的需求曲线。学生可以解释价格战为何发生，以及博弈论如何帮助理解相互依赖的决策。讨论竞争政策的作用。
7. Experiment 4: Production and Costs – Diminishing Marginal Returns | 实验四：生产与成本——边际报酬递减
Objective: To illustrate the law of diminishing marginal returns by adding variable labour to a fixed capital base.
目标：通过在固定资本基础上增加可变劳动，说明边际报酬递减规律。
Setup: Use a simple production process such as making paper aeroplanes. One table (fixed capital) and a stack of paper. One student works as the sole worker for 1 minute, and the total planes produced is recorded. Then add a second worker, then a third, and so on up to 5 workers, each working on the same table for the same time. Ensure no tools change.
设置：采用简单的生产流程，如折纸飞机。一张桌子（固定资本）和一叠纸。一名学生作为唯一的工人工作 1 分钟，记录生产的飞机总数。然后增加第二名工人，再增加第三名，依此类推最多 5 名工人，在同样的时间内使用同一张桌子工作。确保不添加任何工具。
| Labour (workers) | 劳动 (工人) | Total Product (planes) | 总产量 (飞机) | Marginal Product | 边际产量 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5 | – |
| 2 | 14 | 9 |
| 3 | 21 | 7 |
| 4 | 25 | 4 |
| 5 | 27 | 2 |
Observation: Initially, marginal product rises due to specialisation; then it falls as workers crowd the fixed table. Eventually total product may even fall if too many workers get in each other’s way. This mirrors OCR 3.3 Costs and Revenues: the shape of the total product curve gives rise to U-shaped marginal cost and average cost curves.
观察：起初，边际产量因专业化而上升；随后，随着工人挤占固定的桌子，边际产量下降。如果工人过多相互妨碍，总产量甚至可能下降。这对应 OCR 3.3 成本与收益：总产量曲线的形状导致了 U 形的边际成本和平均成本曲线。
8. Experiment 5: Comparative Advantage and Gains from Trade | 实验五：比较优势与贸易收益
Objective: To show that even when one country (or person) is absolutely more efficient in producing both goods, specialisation and trade can increase total output.
目标：展示即使一国（或一人）在两种商品的生产上都具有绝对优势，专业化和贸易仍能增加总产出。
Setup: Divide the class into two groups: ‘Country X’ and ‘Country Y’. Provide each with a fixed amount of resources – e.g., 10 labour units per group. Country X can produce 4 units of food or 2 units of clothing per labour unit; Country Y can produce 1 unit of food or 1 unit of clothing per labour unit. Without trade, each must divide its labour equally between the two goods. Calculate autarky output. Then allow specialisation: Country X focuses on food (its comparative advantage) and Country Y on clothing. Let them agree on a trade ratio (e.g. 3 food for 2 clothing). Compare total consumption bundles.
设置：将班级分成两组：“国家 X”和“国家 Y”。每组分配固定资源，例如 10 个劳动单位。国家 X 每劳动单位可生产 4 单位食物或 2 单位衣服；国家 Y 每劳动单位可生产 1 单位食物或 1 单位衣服。自给自足时，两组必须将劳动平均分配给两种商品。计算自给自足产量。然后允许专业化：国家 X 专门生产食物（其比较优势），国家 Y 专门生产衣服。双方商定贸易比率（如 3 单位食物换 2 单位衣服）。比较总消费组合。
IGCSE link: This directly illustrates OCR 4.2 International Trade and the principle of comparative advantage. Students can calculate opportunity costs to confirm the source of gains. Discuss why countries trade and the limitations of the simple model (transport costs, protectionism).
IGCSE 关联：这直接展示了 OCR 4.2 国际贸易和比较优势原理。学生可以计算机会成本以确认收益来源。讨论国家为何进行贸易以及这一简单模型的局限性（运输成本、保护主义）。
9. Experiment 6: The Impact of a Per-Unit Tax | 实验六：从量税的影响
Objective: To examine how an excise tax shifts the supply curve, alters equilibrium price and quantity, and creates a deadweight loss.
目标：考察从量税如何移动供给曲线、改变均衡价格和数量，并造成无谓损失。
Setup: Re-run the competitive market experiment from section 4, but now impose a £1 per-unit tax on sellers. Every transaction, the seller must pay £1 from the sale price to the teacher. Sellers will mentally add this cost to their reservation price. Allow trading under identical initial demand and supply conditions. Record new prices and quantity.
设置：重新进行第 4 节的竞争市场实验，但现在对卖方征收每单位 1 英镑的从量税。每达成一笔交易，卖方必须从售价中支付 1 英镑给教师。卖方会将这笔成本心理上加到其保留价格上。在相同的初始供求条件下进行交易。记录新的价格和数量。
Data analysis: Compare the pre-tax and post-tax data. Typically, the equilibrium quantity falls, the price buyers pay rises, and the price sellers retain (net of tax) falls. Construct a simple diagram showing the supply curve shift leftwards by the tax amount. Identify the consumer and producer surplus loss and the deadweight loss triangle.
数据分析：比较税前和税后数据。通常，均衡数量下降，买方支付的价格上升，卖方实际获得的价格（税后）下降。构建一个简单图示，显示供给曲线因税额向左移动。找出消费者剩余和生产者剩余的损失，以及无谓损失三角形。
IGCSE link: Connect to OCR 4.5 Fiscal Policy and market failure. Students can evaluate the effectiveness of taxation as a policy tool and discuss how elasticity affects the incidence of tax.
IGCSE 关联：联系 OCR 4.5 财政政策和市场失灵。学生可以评价税收作为政策工具的有效性，并讨论弹性如何影响税收归宿。
10. Recording and Analysing Experimental Data | 记录与分析实验数据
Good economists document their experiments meticulously. For every round, record the date, the treatment variable, the number of participants and the raw data in a spreadsheet. Calculate averages, totals and percentage changes. Plotting data points by hand or with software turns abstract numbers into visible trends.
优秀的经济学家都会细致地记录实验。每一轮实验都要记录日期、处理变量、参与者人数以及原始数据到电子表格中。计算平均值、总计和百分比变化。手工或用软件绘制数据点，能将抽象数字转化为可见的趋势。
When writing up an experiment for revision, use the structure: Aim, Method, Results (with a table or graph), Conclusion and Evaluation. The evaluation should discuss reliability (small sample size, artificial setting) and whether the economic theory was supported. This format mirrors the ‘Discuss’ and ‘Evaluate’ command words in OCR exam papers.
为复习撰写实验报告时，采用如下结构：目的、方法、结果（含表格或图形）、结论和评估。评估应讨论可靠性（样本量小、人为环境）以及经济理论是否得到支持。这种格式与 OCR 试卷中“讨论”和“评价”等指令词相呼应。
11. Connecting Experiments to Exam Technique | 将实验与考试技巧联系起来
IGCSE OCR economics
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