📚 AP Physics 1: Core Vocabulary Summary | AP 物理1：核心词汇汇总
Mastering the core vocabulary of AP Physics 1 is crucial for understanding concepts and solving problems. This comprehensive list provides essential terms with clear definitions in both English and Chinese, aligned with the AP Physics 1 curriculum. Each section covers a key topic area, presenting the most important terminology that appears in the exam and in classroom learning.
掌握AP物理1的核心词汇对于理解概念和解决问题至关重要。这份全面的词汇表提供了与AP物理1课程标准一致的关键术语，并配有清晰的中英文定义。每个部分涵盖一个核心主题，列出在考试和课堂学习中出现的最重要术语。
1. Kinematics | 运动学
Displacement: The change in position of an object; a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction. Symbol: Δx.
位移：物体位置的变化；是一个既有大小又有方向的矢量。符号：Δx。
Velocity: The rate of change of displacement; a vector quantity. Average velocity v = Δx / Δt.
速度：位移的变化率；是一个矢量。平均速度 v = Δx / Δt。
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity; a vector quantity. a = Δv / Δt.
加速度：速度的变化率；是一个矢量。a = Δv / Δt。
Scalar: A physical quantity that has only magnitude, such as distance or speed.
标量：只有大小的物理量，例如路程或速率。
Vector: A physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction, such as displacement or velocity.
矢量：既有大小又有方向的物理量，例如位移或速度。
Free Fall: Motion under the influence of gravity only, with acceleration g = 9.8 m/s² downward.
自由落体：仅在重力作用下的运动，加速度 g = 9.8 m/s² 向下。
Projectile: An object that is launched and moves along a curved path under gravity; its horizontal and vertical motions are independent.
抛射体：被发射并在重力作用下沿曲线路径运动的物体；其水平和竖直运动相互独立。
2. Dynamics | 动力学
Newton’s First Law (Inertia): An object stays at rest or moves with constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external force.
牛顿第一定律（惯性定律）：物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动状态，除非有净外力作用。
Newton’s Second Law: The net force on an object equals its mass times its acceleration: F = ma.
牛顿第二定律：物体所受合外力等于其质量与加速度的乘积：F = ma。
Newton’s Third Law: If object A exerts a force on object B, then B exerts an equal and opposite force on A.
牛顿第三定律：若物体A对物体B施加一个力，则B同时对A施加一个大小相等、方向相反的力。
Weight: The gravitational force on an object, W = mg, directed toward the center of Earth.
重量：物体所受的重力，W = mg，方向指向地心。
Normal Force: A contact force perpendicular to the surfaces in contact, preventing objects from passing through each other.
法向力：垂直于接触面的接触力，防止物体相互穿透。
Friction: A force opposing relative motion between surfaces. Static friction (fₛ) acts when objects are not sliding; kinetic friction (fₖ) acts during sliding.
摩擦力：阻碍表面间相对运动的力。静摩擦力（fₛ）在无滑动时作用；动摩擦力（fₖ）在滑动时作用。
Tension: The pulling force transmitted through a string, rope, or cable when it is pulled tight.
张力：通过被拉紧的绳子、绳索或缆线传递的拉力。
Free-Body Diagram: A diagram showing all the external forces acting on an object, used to analyze motion.
受力图（自由体图）：显示作用在物体上所有外力的示意图，用于分析运动。
3. Circular Motion & Gravitation | 圆周运动与万有引力
Centripetal Acceleration: Acceleration directed toward the center of a circular path, a_c = v² / r.
向心加速度：指向圆周路径中心的加速度，a_c = v² / r。
Centripetal Force: The net force causing centripetal acceleration, F_c = m v² / r, always perpendicular to velocity.
向心力：产生向心加速度的合外力，F_c = m v² / r，始终与速度垂直。
Period: The time for one complete revolution, T. For circular motion, T = (2πr) / v.
周期：完成一整圈所需的时间，T。圆周运动中 T = (2πr) / v。
Frequency: The number of revolutions per unit time, f = 1 / T.
频率：单位时间内的转数，f = 1 / T。
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: The gravitational force between two masses is F_g = G m₁ m₂ / r², where G is the gravitational constant.
万有引力定律：两质量间的引力为 F_g = G m₁ m₂ / r²，其中 G 是引力常量。
Orbital Velocity: The speed needed for an object to stay in a circular orbit under gravity, v = √(GM / r).
轨道速度：物体在重力作用下维持圆轨道所需的速度，v = √(GM / r)。
4. Energy | 能量
Work: The transfer of energy by a force acting over a displacement. W = F d cosθ, where θ is the angle between force and displacement.
功：力在位移上作用时的能量转移。W = F d cosθ，θ 是力与位移间的夹角。
Kinetic Energy: The energy of motion, K = ½ m v².
动能：由于运动而具有的能量，K = ½ m v²。
Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy due to an object’s position in a gravitational field, U_g = mgh (near Earth’s surface).
重力势能：物体因在引力场中的位置而具有的能量，U_g = mgh（近地表）。
Elastic Potential Energy: Energy stored in a stretched or compressed spring, U_s = ½ k x², where k is the spring constant.
弹性势能：储存在被拉伸或压缩的弹簧中的能量，U_s = ½ k x²，k 是弹性系数。
Mechanical Energy: The sum of kinetic and potential energy in a system. E = K + U.
机械能：系统中动能与势能之和。E = K + U。
Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it only transforms from one form to another.
能量守恒：能量不能凭空产生或消失，只能从一种形式转化为另一种形式。
Power: The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. P = W / Δt = F v.
功率：做功或能量转移的速率。P = W / Δt = F v。
Conservative Force: A force for which work done is independent of the path taken (e.g., gravity, spring force).
保守力：做功与路径无关的力（例如重力、弹簧力）。
5. Momentum | 动量
Momentum: The product of mass and velocity, p = m v; a vector quantity.
动量：质量与速度的乘积，p = m v；是一个矢量。
Impulse: Change in momentum caused by a force acting over a time interval. J = F Δt = Δp.
冲量：力在一段时间内作用引起的动量变化。J = F Δt = Δp。
Conservation of Momentum: In a closed system with no external forces, total momentum before an interaction equals total momentum after.
动量守恒：在没有外力的封闭系统中，相互作用前的总动量等于作用后的总动量。
Elastic Collision: A collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
弹性碰撞：动量和动能均守恒的碰撞。
Inelastic Collision: A collision in which momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not (some energy is transformed).
非弹性碰撞：动量守恒但动能不守恒的碰撞（部分能量发生转化）。
Perfectly Inelastic Collision: A collision where objects stick together after impact, with maximum kinetic energy loss.
完全非弹性碰撞：碰撞后物体粘在一起，动能损失最大。
Center of Mass: The average position of all the mass in a system; motion of the system can be described as if all mass were concentrated there.
质心：系统中所有质量的加权平均位置；系统的运动可视为全部质量集中于此点。
6. Simple Harmonic Motion | 简谐运动
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): Periodic motion where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement and opposite in direction. F = -k x.
简谐运动（SHM）：回复力与位移成正比且方向相反的周期性运动。F = -k x。
Amplitude: The maximum displacement from equilibrium in SHM. Symbol: A.
振幅：简谐运动中偏离平衡位置的最大位移。符号：A。
Period (SHM): Time for one complete cycle. For a mass-spring system, T = 2π √(m/k); for a simple pendulum, T = 2π √(L/g).
周期（简谐运动）：完成一次完整振动所需的时间。弹簧振子 T = 2π √(m/k)；单摆 T = 2π √(L/g)。
Frequency (SHM): Number of cycles per unit time, f = 1/T. Angular frequency ω = 2πf.
频率（简谐运动）：单位时间内的振动次数，f = 1/T。角频率 ω = 2πf。
Phase: The argument of the sine or cosine function describing the position as a function of time, often written as (ωt + φ).
相位：描述位置随时间变化的正弦或余弦函数的自变量，常写作 (ωt + φ)。
Restoring Force: The force that brings a system back to equilibrium, proportional to displacement in SHM.
回复力：使系统回到平衡位置的力，在简谐运动中与位移成正比。
Energy in SHM: Energy alternates between kinetic and potential; total mechanical energy is constant and equals ½ k A².
简谐运动中的能量：能量在动能与势能之间交替转化；总机械能守恒，等于 ½ k A²。
7. Rotational Motion & Torque | 旋转运动与扭矩
Angular Displacement: The angle through which an object rotates, measured in radians. Symbol: Δθ.
角位移：物体转过的角度，单位为弧度。符号：Δθ。
Angular Velocity: Rate of change of angular displacement, ω = Δθ / Δt.
角速度：角位移的变化率，ω = Δθ / Δt。
Angular Acceleration: Rate of change of angular velocity, α = Δω / Δt.
角加速度：角速度的变化率，α = Δω / Δt。
Torque: A measure of the ability of a force to cause rotation; τ = r F sinθ, where r is the lever arm.
扭矩（力矩）：力产生转动效应的量度；τ = r F sinθ，r 为力臂。
Moment of Inertia: Resistance of an object to changes in rotational motion; depends on mass distribution. I = Σ m r².
转动惯量：物体对旋转运动变化的阻碍；取决于质量分布。I = Σ m r²。
Newton’s Second Law for Rotation: The net torque equals moment of inertia times angular acceleration: Στ = I α.
转动形式的牛顿第二定律：合扭矩等于转动惯量与角加速度的乘积：Στ = I α。
Angular Momentum: The rotational analogue of linear momentum, L = I ω; conserved if no external torque acts.
角动量：线性动量的转动对应量，L = I ω；若无外扭矩，角动量守恒。
Rotational Kinetic Energy: K_rot = ½ I ω².
转动动能：K_rot = ½ I ω²。
Rolling Without Slipping: Motion where the point of contact is momentarily at rest; v = ω R.
无滑动滚动：接触点瞬时静止的运动；v = ω R。
8. Electric Charge & Electric Force | 电荷与电场力
Electric Charge: A fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an electric field. Unit: coulomb (C).
电荷：物质的一种基本属性，使其在电场中受力。单位：库仑（C）。
Coulomb’s Law: The force between two point charges is F = k q₁ q₂ / r², where k = 8.99×10⁹ N·m²/C².
库仑定律：两点电荷间的作用力为 F = k q₁ q₂ / r²，k = 8.99×10⁹ N·m²/C²。
Electric Field: A region around a charged object where a test charge experiences a force; E = F / q₀.
电场：带电体周围使试探电荷受力的区域；E = F / q₀。
Electric Potential Energy: Energy a charge has due to its position in an electric field.
电势能：电荷因在电场中的位置而具有的能量。
Electric Potential: Potential energy per unit charge, V = U / q; unit: volt (V).
电势：单位电荷的电势能，V = U / q；单位：伏特（V）。
Conductor: A material that allows electric charges to move freely (e.g., copper).
导体：允许电荷自由移动的材料（如铜）。
Insulator: A material that does not allow easy movement of charges (e.g., rubber).
绝缘体：电荷不易移动的材料（如橡胶）。
Polarization: Slight separation of positive and negative charges within a neutral object due to an external electric field.
极化：中性物体在外电场作用下内部正负电荷的轻微分离。
9. DC Circuits | 直流电路
Current: The rate of flow of electric charge; I = ΔQ / Δt, unit: ampere (A).
电流：电荷的流动速率；I = ΔQ / Δt，单位：安培（A）。
Voltage: The potential difference that drives current; V = W / q, unit: volt (V).
电压：驱动电流的电位差；V = W / q，单位：伏特（V）。
Resistance: Opposition to current flow; R = V / I, unit: ohm (Ω).
电阻：对电流的阻碍作用；R = V / I，单位：欧姆（Ω）。
Ohm’s Law: V = I R for ohmic materials at constant temperature.
欧姆定律：对于在恒温下的欧姆材料，有 V = I R。
Resistivity: A material property determining resistance; R = ρ L / A, where ρ is resistivity.
电阻率：决定电阻的材料属性；R = ρ L / A，ρ 为电阻率。
Series Circuit: Components connected end to end; current is the same, voltage divides. R_total = R₁ + R₂ + …
串联电路：元件首尾相连；电流相同，电压分配。R_total = R₁ + R₂ + …
Parallel Circuit: Components connected across common points; voltage is the same, current divides. 1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …
并联电路：元件连接在公共点之间；电压相同，电流分流。1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …
Electric Power: Rate of energy conversion in a circuit; P = I V = I² R = V² / R.
电功率：电路中能量转化的速率；P = I V = I² R = V² / R。
Electromotive Force (emf): The energy per unit charge supplied by a source, such as a battery; ε.
电动势（emf）：电源（如电池）提供的单位电荷能量；符号 ε。
Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule: The sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum leaving. ΣI_in = ΣI_out.
基尔霍夫节点电流定律：流入节点的电流之和等于流出节点电流之和。ΣI_in = ΣI_out。
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of potential differences around any closed loop is zero. ΣV = 0.
基尔霍夫回路电压定律：沿任一闭合回路的电位差的代数和为零。ΣV = 0。
10. Mechanical Waves & Sound | 机械波与声音
Wave: A disturbance that transfers energy through a medium or space without transferring matter.
波：通过介质或空间传递能量而不传递物质的扰动。
Transverse Wave: A wave where particle oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel (e.g., light, string waves).
横波：质点振动方向与波传播方向垂直的波（例如光波、弦波）。
Longitudinal Wave: A wave where particle oscillation is parallel to the direction of wave travel (e.g., sound).
纵波：质点振动方向与波传播方向平行的波（例如声
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