AP Psychology Comprehensive Knowledge Review | AP心理学知识点系统梳理

📚 AP Psychology Comprehensive Knowledge Review | AP心理学知识点系统梳理

AP Psychology covers a rich set of topics from the biological basis of behaviour to social interactions. This article provides a systematic review of all major content areas, key theories, important research studies, and essential terminology. Use this guide to consolidate your understanding and prepare effectively for the exam.

AP心理学涵盖了从行为的生物学基础到社会互动的丰富主题。本文对所有主要知识板块、核心理论、重要研究以及必背术语进行了系统梳理。请使用本指南来巩固理解，为考试做好充分准备。

1. History and Major Schools of Psychology | 心理学的历史与主要流派

Psychology originated from philosophy and physiology. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He used introspection to study conscious experience, founding structuralism. Edward Titchener brought structuralism to the United States, aiming to identify the basic elements of the mind.

心理学源于哲学与生理学。威廉·冯特于1879年在德国莱比锡建立了第一所心理学实验室，采用内省法研究意识体验，创立了结构主义。爱德华·铁钦纳将结构主义传入美国，旨在识别心智的基本元素。

William James criticised structuralism’s approach and proposed functionalism, which focused on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments. Functionalism was influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.

威廉·詹姆斯批评结构主义的方法，并提出功能主义，关注心理过程如何帮助个体适应环境。功能主义深受达尔文进化论的影响。

The early twentieth century saw the rise of behaviourism. John B. Watson argued that psychology should be an objective science based on observable behaviour. B.F. Skinner further developed behaviourism by introducing operant conditioning, emphasising reinforcement and punishment.

二十世纪初行为主义兴起。约翰·华生主张心理学应成为基于可观察行为的客观科学。斯金纳进一步发展了行为主义，引入操作条件作用，强调强化与惩罚。

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory emphasised unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and the structure of personality (id, ego, superego). Humanistic psychology, led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focused on personal growth, free will, and self-actualisation. Cognitive psychology emerged in the mid-twentieth century, studying mental processes such as memory, perception, and problem-solving.

弗洛伊德的精神分析理论强调无意识驱力、童年经历以及人格结构（本我、自我、超我）。以罗杰斯和马斯洛为代表的人本主义心理学关注个人成长、自由意志和自我实现。认知心理学于二十世纪中叶兴起，研究记忆、知觉和问题解决等心理过程。

School / 流派	Key Figures / 代表人物	Main Focus / 主要关注点
Structuralism	Wundt, Titchener	Basic elements of consciousness / 意识的基本元素
Functionalism	James	Adaptive purpose of mind / 心智的适应功能
Behaviourism	Watson, Skinner	Observable behaviour / 可观察的行为
Psychoanalytic	Freud	Unconscious conflicts / 无意识冲突
Humanistic	Rogers, Maslow	Growth and self-actualisation / 成长与自我实现
Cognitive	Piaget, Neisser	Mental processes / 心理过程

2. Research Methods and Ethics | 研究方法与伦理

Psychological research relies on the scientific method: formulate a hypothesis, design a study, collect data, analyse results, and draw conclusions. A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often derived from a broader theory. Operational definitions clearly specify how variables are measured.

心理学研究依赖科学方法：提出假设、设计研究、收集数据、分析结果并得出结论。假设是可检验的预测，通常源自更广泛的理论。操作性定义清楚地说明变量的测量方式。

Researchers use descriptive methods such as case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys. Case studies provide in-depth information but may lack generalisability. Naturalistic observation captures behaviour in real settings without interference. Surveys can gather large amounts of data but are subject to self-report bias and wording effects.

研究者使用描述性方法，如个案研究、自然观察和问卷调查。个案研究提供深入信息但可能缺乏普遍性。自然观察在不加干预的情况下捕捉真实行为。问卷调查可收集大量数据，但存在自我报告偏差和措辞效应。

Correlational research examines relationships between variables. A correlation coefficient (r) ranges from -1.00 to +1.00. A positive correlation means two variables increase together; a negative correlation means one increases as the other decreases. Correlation does not imply causation.

相关研究考察变量间的关系。相关系数 (r) 的范围在 -1.00 到 +1.00 之间。正相关表示两个变量同时增加；负相关表示一个增加时另一个减少。相关不意味着因果关系。

Experimental research allows cause-and-effect inferences. The researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV) and measures the dependent variable (DV). Random assignment creates equivalent experimental and control groups. Confounding variables are controlled to prevent alternative explanations.

实验研究允许因果推断。研究者操纵自变量（IV），测量因变量（DV）。随机分配创建了同等的实验组和控制组。控制混淆变量以防止其他解释。

Ethical guidelines protect participants. Informed consent, protection from harm, confidentiality, and debriefing are essential. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews research proposals. Animal research follows strict care standards.

伦理准则保护参与者。知情同意、免受伤害、保密和事后解释是必不可少的。机构审查委员会审查研究计划。动物研究遵守严格的护理标准。

3. Biological Bases of Behaviour | 行为的生物学基础

The nervous system is built from neurons that communicate via electrical and chemical signals. A neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body (soma), an axon, and terminal buttons. The action potential is an electrical impulse that travels down the axon, following the all-or-none principle. The myelin sheath speeds up transmission.

神经系统由通过电化学信号进行通信的神经元构成。神经元由树突、细胞体、轴突和终扣组成。动作电位是沿轴突传导的电冲动，遵循全或无原则。髓鞘可加速传导。

Synaptic transmission occurs when neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. Major neurotransmitters include dopamine (reward, movement), serotonin (mood, sleep), acetylcholine (muscle action, memory), norepinephrine (alertness), GABA (inhibitory), and glutamate (excitatory).

突触传递发生在突触前神经元释放神经递质、穿过突触间隙并与突触后神经元受体结合之时。主要神经递质包括多巴胺（奖赏、运动）、血清素（情绪、睡眠）、乙酰胆碱（肌肉活动、记忆）、去甲肾上腺素（警觉）、GABA（抑制性）和谷氨酸（兴奋性）。

The brain is organised into the hindbrain (medulla, pons, cerebellum – basic life functions and coordination), midbrain (sensory relay), and forebrain (cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system). The limbic system includes the hippocampus (memory), amygdala (emotion), and hypothalamus (drives).

脑可分为后脑（延髓、脑桥、小脑——基本生命功能和协调）、中脑（感觉中继）和前脑（大脑皮层、丘脑、下丘脑、边缘系统）。边缘系统包括海马体（记忆）、杏仁核（情绪）和下丘脑（驱动力）。

The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes: frontal (motor, decision-making, Broca’s area), parietal (sensory, spatial), occipital (vision), and temporal (hearing, Wernicke’s area). The left hemisphere specialises in language and logic; the right hemisphere excels in spatial and holistic processing. Split-brain studies by Sperry demonstrated hemispheric specialisation.

大脑皮层分为四个叶：额叶（运动、决策、布洛卡区）、顶叶（感觉、空间）、枕叶（视觉）和颞叶（听觉、韦尼克区）。左半球专长于语言和逻辑；右半球擅长空间和整体加工。斯佩里的裂脑研究证明了半球特化。

4. Sensation and Perception | 感觉与知觉

Sensation is the detection of physical energy by sensory receptors. Perception is the brain’s interpretation of sensory input. Psychophysics studies thresholds. The absolute threshold is the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. The difference threshold (just noticeable difference) follows Weber’s law: the JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.

感觉是感受器对物理能量的检测。知觉是大脑对感觉输入的解释。心理物理学研究阈限。绝对阈限是在50%的几率下检测到刺激所需的最小刺激量。差别阈限（最小可觉差）遵循韦伯定律：最小可觉差是原始刺激的一个恒定比例。

Signal detection theory considers decision criteria and noise. Sensory adaptation means diminished sensitivity to constant stimulation. Vision involves light transduced by rods (dim light) and cones (colour, detail) in the retina. The optic nerve carries signals to the visual cortex. Two theories of colour vision: trichromatic theory (three types of cones) and opponent-process theory (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white pairs).

信号检测论考虑决策标准和噪音。感觉适应指对恒定刺激的敏感性下降。视觉涉及视网膜中视杆细胞（弱光）和视锥细胞（颜色、细节）对光的换能。视神经将信号传递到视觉皮层。色觉有两种理论：三色说（三种视锥细胞）和拮抗加工说（红-绿、蓝-黄、黑-白配对）。

Hearing relies on the ear’s structures. Sound waves enter the auditory canal, vibrate the eardrum and ossicles, and create fluid waves in the cochlea. Hair cells on the basilar membrane transduce vibrations. Place theory explains high pitches; frequency theory explains low pitches. The vestibular sense monitors balance and movement.

听觉依赖于耳朵的结构。声波进入耳道，使鼓膜和听小骨振动，并在耳蜗中产生液体波。基底膜上的毛细胞将振动换能。地点说解释高音高；频率理论解释低音高。前庭觉监控平衡和运动。

Gestalt psychology emphasises that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. Principles of perceptual organisation include figure-ground, proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and connectedness. Depth perception arises from binocular cues (retinal disparity, convergence) and monocular cues (relative size, linear perspective, interposition).

格式塔心理学强调整体大于部分之和。知觉组织的原则包括图形-背景、接近性、相似性、连续性、闭合性和连通性。深度知觉源自双眼线索（视网膜视差、辐合）和单眼线索（相对大小、线条透视、遮挡）。

5. Learning | 学习

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience. Classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR).

学习是由经验引起的相对持久的行为改变。由巴甫洛夫发现的经典条件作用，是指将一个中性刺激与能自然引发无条件反应（UR）的无条件刺激（US）进行配对。反复配对后，中性刺激变为条件刺激（CS），引发条件反应（CR）。

Key processes in classical conditioning: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation, and discrimination. John Watson’s Little Albert experiment demonstrated fear conditioning. Taste aversion challenges the idea that any stimulus can serve as a CS; biological predispositions matter.

经典条件作用的关键过程：习得、消退、自发恢复、泛化和分化。华生的小阿尔伯特实验展示了恐惧条件作用。味觉厌恶挑战了任何刺激都能作为条件刺激的观点；生物倾向性很重要。

Operant conditioning, studied by B.F. Skinner, emphasises reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour. Positive means adding a stimulus; negative means removing a stimulus. So positive reinforcement adds something pleasant, negative reinforcement removes something aversive.

由斯金纳研究的操作条件作用，强调强化与惩罚。强化增加行为频率；惩罚减少行为频率。正指的是增加一个刺激；负指的是移除一个刺激。因此，正强化是添加愉快的事物，负强化是移除厌恶的事物。

Schedules of reinforcement include fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval. Variable-ratio schedules produce high, steady response rates. Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a target behaviour. Latent learning (Tolman) shows that learning can occur without reinforcement; cognitive maps support this.

强化程序包括固定比率、可变比率、固定时距和可变时距。可变比率程序产生高且稳定的反应率。塑造法涉及强化越来越接近目标行为的行为。潜在学习（托尔曼）表明学习可以在没有强化的情况下发生；认知地图支持了这一点。

Observational learning, demonstrated by Albert Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment, involves learning by watching others. Four processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Mirror neurons may underlie observational learning.

由班杜拉的波波玩偶实验展示的观察学习，涉及通过观察他人进行学习。四个过程：注意、保持、再现和动机。镜像神经元可能是观察学习的基础。

6. Cognitive Psychology | 认知心理学

Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, and language. Memory is often described using the information-processing model: encoding, storage, and retrieval. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

认知心理学关注记忆、思维和语言等心理过程。记忆常用信息加工模型描述：编码、存储和提取。阿特金森-希夫林模型包括感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。

Short-term memory holds about 7 items (±2) for around 20 seconds. Working memory (Baddeley) includes the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive. Long-term memory has a virtually unlimited capacity and can be divided into explicit (declarative) memory (episodic and semantic) and implicit (nondeclarative) memory (procedural).

短时记忆可保持约7个项目（±2），持续约20秒。工作记忆（巴德利）包括语音回路、视空间画板和中央执行器。长时记忆容量近乎无限，可分为外显（陈述性）记忆（情景记忆和语义记忆）和内隐（非陈述性）记忆（程序性记忆）。

Retrieval is influenced by encoding specificity, context effects, and state-dependent memory. Serial position effect shows better recall for items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list. Forgetting may be due to encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure (tip-of-the-tongue), proactive and retroactive interference.

提取受编码特异性、情境效应和状态依赖记忆的影响。序列位置效应表明列表开头（首因效应）和末尾（近因效应）的项目回忆更好。遗忘可能归因于编码失败、存储衰退、提取失败（话在嘴边现象）、前摄抑制和倒摄抑制。

Thinking involves concepts, prototypes, and problem-solving strategies such as algorithms, heuristics, and insight. Confirmation bias, fixation (mental set, functional fixedness), and the representativeness and availability heuristics influence judgement. Overconfidence and belief perseverance affect decision-making. Language development follows stages: babbling, one-word, two-word, and multi-word speech, with Chomsky’s innate universal grammar and Skinner’s operant learning perspectives explaining acquisition.

思维涉及概念、原型以及算法、启发式和顿悟等解决问题的策略。确认偏差、固着（心理定势、功能固着）以及代表性启发式和可得性启发式影响判断。过度自信和信念固着影响决策。语言发展经历咿呀语、单词句、双词句和多词句阶段，乔姆斯基的先天普遍语法和斯金纳的操作学习观点分别解释了语言习得。

7. Developmental Psychology | 发展心理学

Developmental psychology studies physical, cognitive, and social changes across the lifespan. Prenatal development includes germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages. Teratogens such as alcohol can cause fetal alcohol syndrome. Newborns possess reflexes like rooting and grasping.

发展心理学研究毕生中的生理、认知和社会变化。产前发展包括胚种期、胚胎期和胎儿期。酒精等致畸物可导致胎儿酒精综合征。新生儿具有觅食反射和抓握反射等。

Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory describes four stages: sensorimotor (birth to 2 years, object permanence), preoperational (2-7 years, egocentrism, animism, lack of conservation), concrete operational (7-11 years, conservation, logical thinking), and formal operational (11+ years, abstract reasoning).

皮亚杰的认知发展理论描述了四个阶段：感知运动阶段（出生至2岁，客体永久性）、前运算阶段（2-7岁，自我中心、泛灵论、缺乏守恒）、具体运算阶段（7-11岁，守恒、逻辑思维）和形式运算阶段（11岁以上，抽象推理）。

Lev Vygotsky emphasised the sociocultural context. Children learn through scaffolding and the zone of proximal development. Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, classifies attachment styles (secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant/ambivalent) using the Strange Situation. Harry Harlow’s monkey studies showed the importance of contact comfort.

维果茨基强调社会文化背景。儿童通过脚手架和最近发展区进行学习。由鲍尔比和艾因斯沃斯发展的依恋理论，运用陌生人情境法将依恋类型分为安全型、不安全-回避型和不安全-反抗/矛盾型。哈洛的恒河猴实验证明了接触舒适的重要性。

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory outlines eight stages, each with a crisis. Key stages: Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy), Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence), Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood). Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved) affect child outcomes.

埃里克森的社会心理发展理论概述了八个阶段，每个阶段均有一个危机。关键阶段：基本信任对不信任（婴儿期）、同一性对角色混乱（青春期）、亲密对孤独（成年早期）。科尔伯格提出了道德发展的三个水平：前习俗水平、习俗水平和后习俗水平。父母教养方式（权威型、专制型、放纵型、忽视型）影响儿童发展结果。

8. Motivation, Emotion, and Personality | 动机、情绪与人格

Motivation is the process that initiates, directs, and maintains behaviour. Drive-reduction theory proposes that physiological needs create internal drives (e.g., hunger) that push organisms to restore homeostasis. Arousal theory suggests individuals seek optimal arousal levels. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs progresses from physiological needs to self-actualisation.

动机是引起、引导和维持行为的过程。驱力降低理论认为生理需要产生内部驱力（如饥饿），驱使生物体恢复体内平衡。唤醒理论认为个体寻求最佳唤醒水平。马斯洛的需要层次从生理需要逐步上升到自我实现。

Hunger is regulated by lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus as well as hormones like ghrelin, insulin, and leptin. Sexual motivation is influenced by hormones and culture. The human sexual response cycle includes excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Achievement motivation involves intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

饥饿受外侧下丘脑和腹内侧下丘脑以及饥饿素、胰岛素、瘦素等激素的调节。性动机受激素和文化影响。人类的性反应周期包括兴奋期、平台期、高潮期和消退期。成就动机涉及内在和外在因素。

Emotion involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviours, and conscious experience. Key theories: James-Lange (arousal first, then emotion), Cannon-Bard (arousal and emotion simultaneously), Schachter-Singer two-factor (arousal plus cognitive label), and Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory. Paul Ekman identified basic emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust) with universal facial expressions.

情绪涉及生理唤醒、表达性行为和意识体验。主要理论：詹姆斯-兰格理论（唤醒在先，情绪在后）、坎农-巴德理论（唤醒和情绪同时发生）、沙克特-辛格双因素理论（唤醒加认知标签）以及拉扎勒斯的认知-评价理论。保罗·艾克曼识别了具有普世表情的基本情绪（快乐、悲伤、恐惧、愤怒、惊讶、厌恶）。

Personality refers to enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective includes the id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), and superego (morality). Defence mechanisms such as repression, projection, and displacement protect against anxiety. The neo-Freudians (Jung, Adler, Horney) built on these ideas.

人格指稳定的思维、情感和行为模式。弗洛伊德的精神分析视角包括本我（快乐原则）、自我（现实原则）和超我（道德原则）。压抑、投射和移置等防御机制保护个体免受焦虑。新弗洛伊德主义者（荣格、阿德勒、霍妮）发展了这些思想。

Trait theories aim to describe personality. The Big Five model (OCEAN) includes Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Other approaches: humanistic (Rogers’ self-concept, unconditional positive regard), social-cognitive (Bandura’s reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy, Rotter’s locus of control). Personality assessments include projective tests (Rorschach, TAT) and objective inventories (MMPI, Big Five).

特质理论旨在描述人格。大五模型（OCEAN）包括开放性、尽责性、外向性、宜人性和神经质。其他流派：人本主义（罗杰斯的自我概念、无条件积极关注）、社会认知（班杜拉的交互决定论、自我效能感、罗特的控制点）。人格评估方法包括投射测验（罗夏墨迹测验、主题统觉测验）和客观问卷（明尼苏达多相人格问卷、大五量表）。

9. Clinical Psychology | 临床心理学

Abnormal behaviour is typically defined using the criteria of statistical rarity, personal distress, and maladaptive functioning. The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) provides diagnostic categories. The biopsychosocial model integrates biological, psychological, and social factors.

异常行为通常以统计稀少性、个人痛苦和适应不良为标准进行定义。DSM-5（精神障碍诊断与统计手册）提供了诊断分类。生物心理社会模型结合了生物、心理和社会因素。

Anxiety disorders include generalised anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Depressive disorders include major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder. Bipolar disorder involves mood swings between mania and depression. Schizophrenia is marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganised speech, and negative symptoms; the dopamine hypothesis links it to excess dopamine.

焦虑障碍包括广泛性焦虑障碍、惊恐障碍、恐怖症和强迫症。抑郁障碍包括重度抑郁症和持续性抑郁障碍。双相障碍涉及躁狂和抑郁之间的情绪波动。精神分裂症的特征为妄想、幻觉、言语紊乱和阴性症状；多巴胺假说将其与多巴胺功能亢进联系起来。

Somatic symptom disorders involve physical symptoms with psychological roots. Dissociative disorders (dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder) involve disruptions in consciousness and identity. Personality disorders (e.g., antisocial, borderline) are enduring, inflexible patterns. Neurodevelopmental disorders include ADHD and autism spectrum disorder.

躯体症状障碍涉及由心理根源引起的生理症状。分离性障碍（分离性遗忘、分离性身份障碍）涉及意识和身份的扰乱。人格障碍（如反社会型、边缘型）是持久、僵化的行为模式。神经发育障碍包括注意缺陷多动障碍和孤独症谱系障碍。

Treatment approaches: psychodynamic therapy explores unconscious conflicts; humanistic therapy (client-centred) provides empathy and unconditional positive regard; behaviour therapy uses counterconditioning, systematic desensitisation, and exposure; cognitive therapy (Beck, Ellis) restructures irrational thoughts; cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) combines techniques; biomedical therapy includes medication (antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics) and electroconvulsive therapy. The placebo effect can influence outcomes.

治疗方法：心理动力学疗法探索无意识冲突；人本主义疗法（来访者中心）提供共情和无条件积极关注；行为疗法使用反条件作用、系统脱敏和暴露；认知疗法（贝克、埃利斯）重建非理性思维；认知行为疗法（CBT）结合多种技术；生物医学治疗包括药物（抗抑郁药、抗精神病药、抗焦虑药）和电抽搐疗法。安慰剂效应可影响疗效。

10. Social Psychology | 社会心理学

Social psychology examines how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by others. Attribution theory explains how we infer causes of behaviour: dispositional (internal) or situational (external) attributions. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasise dispositional factors when explaining others’ actions. The self-serving bias attributes successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

社会心理学研究他人如何影响个体的思想、情感和行为。归因理论解释我们如何推断行为的原因：特质归因（内部）或情境归因（外部）。基本归因错误是指在解释他人行为时过度强调特质因素的倾向。自我服务偏差将成功归因于内部因素而将失败归因于外部因素。

Attitudes are evaluations that can influence behaviour. Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger) states that people feel discomfort when attitudes and behaviours clash, leading them to change attitudes. Persuasion techniques include the central route and peripheral route to persuasion (elaboration likelihood model). The foot-in-the-door technique exploits consistency.

态度是可能影响行为的评价。认知失调理论（费斯廷格）指出，当态度与行为冲突时，人们会感到不适，从而改变态度。说服技术包括中心路径和边缘路径（详尽可能性模型）。登门槛技术利用了承诺一致性。

Conformity involves changing behaviour to match a group. Solomon Asch’s line studies demonstrated conformity to group pressure. Obedience is following authority commands; Stanley Milgram’s experiments revealed high obedience to authority even when it caused potential harm. Group influence includes social facilitation, social loafing, deindividuation, groupthink, and group polarisation.

从众指改变行为以与群体一致。所罗门·阿希的线段实验展示了对群体压力的从众。服从是遵循权威命令；斯坦利·米尔格拉姆的实验揭示了即使可能造成伤害，对权威的服从仍然很高。群体影响包括社会助长、社会惰化、去个体化、群体思维和群体极化。

Prejudice is a negative attitude based on group membership, while discrimination is negative behaviour. Ingroup-outgroup dynamics and the just-world phenomenon contribute to prejudice. Reducing prejudice involves equal-status contact, cooperative goals (jigsaw classroom). Prosocial behaviour includes altruism; the bystander effect shows reduced helping in the presence of others. Social traps and conflict highlight tension between self-interest and collective good.

偏见是基于群体成员身份的负面态度，歧视则是负面行为。内群体-外群体动态和公正世界现象助长了偏见。减少偏见的方法包括平等地位接触、合作目标（拼图教室）。亲社会行为包括利他主义；旁观者效应表明他人在场会减少帮助行为。社会陷阱和冲突凸显了个人利益与集体利益之间的张力。

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AP Psychology Comprehensive Knowledge Review | AP心理学知识点系统梳理