📚 Core Concepts in Psychology | 心理学核心知识点汇总与讲解
Psychology is a multifaceted discipline that seeks to understand the mind, brain, and behaviour. From the biological underpinnings of mental processes to the social forces shaping individual actions, psychology integrates diverse perspectives. This bilingual revision guide summarises core concepts frequently examined in international curricula such as A Level, AP, and IB Psychology. It provides clear, paired explanations to help students master essential theories, research findings, and terminology.
心理学是一门多层面的学科，旨在理解心灵、大脑和行为。从心理过程的生物基础到塑造个体行为的社会力量，心理学融合了多种视角。本双语复习指南总结了 A Level、AP 和 IB 心理学等国际课程中经常考察的核心概念，通过对照讲解帮助学生掌握重要理论、研究发现和专业术语。
1. What Is Psychology? | 什么是心理学？
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. It uses empirical methods to observe, measure, and analyse thoughts, emotions, and actions.
心理学被定义为对行为与心理过程的科学研究。它运用实证方法观察、测量并分析思维、情感和行动。
The discipline relies on the scientific method, meaning knowledge is gained through systematic observation, hypothesis testing, and controlled experiments rather than intuition or anecdote.
这门学科依赖科学方法，意味着知识是通过系统观察、假设检验和对照实验获得的，而非基于直觉或轶事。
Major historical perspectives include structuralism (Wundt), functionalism (James), behaviourism (Watson, Skinner), psychoanalysis (Freud), and humanistic psychology (Rogers, Maslow).
主要历史流派包括结构主义（冯特）、功能主义（詹姆斯）、行为主义（华生、斯金纳）、精神分析（弗洛伊德）和人本主义心理学（罗杰斯、马斯洛）。
Contemporary approaches integrate biological, cognitive, sociocultural, and evolutionary explanations, often operating within a biopsychosocial framework.
当代研究视角整合了生物、认知、社会文化和进化解释，通常在生物-心理-社会框架下运作。
The nature–nurture debate asks how much of our behaviour is shaped by genetics versus experience. Most psychologists now recognise that heredity and environment interact continuously.
先天与后天之争探讨我们的行为在多大程度上由基因塑造、在多大程度上受经验影响。如今多数心理学家认为遗传与环境持续交互作用。
2. The Biological Approach | 生物心理学视角
The biological approach examines how brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones influence behaviour, thoughts, and emotions. It assumes that psychological phenomena can be reduced to physiological processes.
生物心理学视角研究脑结构、神经递质和激素如何影响行为、思维和情绪。它假设心理现象可以还原为生理过程。
Key neurotransmitters include serotonin (mood regulation), dopamine (reward and motivation), and GABA (inhibition). Imbalances are associated with disorders such as depression and schizophrenia.
重要的神经递质包括血清素（情绪调节）、多巴胺（奖赏与动机）和γ-氨基丁酸（抑制）。它们的失衡与抑郁症、精神分裂症等障碍有关。
Brain imaging techniques—fMRI, PET, EEG—allow researchers to observe neural activity in real time. fMRI measures blood flow changes, while EEG records electrical activity via scalp electrodes.
脑成像技术——fMRI、PET、EEG——使研究者能够实时观察神经活动。fMRI 测量血流变化，EEG 则通过头皮电极记录电活动。
The endocrine system secretes hormones such as cortisol (stress response) and oxytocin (bonding). The fight-or-flight response is triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, releasing adrenaline.
内分泌系统分泌皮质醇（应激反应）和催产素（依恋）等激素。战斗或逃跑反应由交感神经系统触发，释放肾上腺素。
Phineas Gage’s case demonstrated that frontal lobe damage can alter personality, highlighting the link between brain regions and behaviour.
菲尼亚斯·盖奇的案例表明额叶损伤会改变人格，凸显了脑区与行为之间的联系。
3. Sensation and Perception | 感觉与知觉
Sensation is the detection of physical energy by sense organs, while perception is the brain’s active interpretation and organisation of sensory input. These processes are distinct but tightly linked.
感觉是感觉器官对物理能量的探测，而知觉是大脑对感觉输入的主动解释和组织。这两个过程既相互区别又紧密相连。
Absolute threshold refers to the minimum stimulus intensity needed for detection 50% of the time. The difference threshold (just noticeable difference) is the smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected.
绝对阈限指在 50% 的尝试中能被探测到的最低刺激强度。差别阈限（最小可觉差）是指能察觉到的最小刺激变化量。
Signal detection theory accounts for decision-making biases in detecting faint stimuli, introducing the concepts of sensitivity and response criterion.
信号检测论解释了在探测微弱刺激时的决策偏差，引入了感受性和判断标准这两个概念。
Visual perception relies on monocular depth cues (linear perspective, relative size) and binocular cues (retinal disparity, convergence). Gestalt laws—proximity, similarity, closure—explain how we group elements into wholes.
视觉知觉依赖于单眼深度线索（线条透视、相对大小）和双眼线索（视网膜像差、辐辏）。格式塔法则——接近性、相似性、闭合性——解释了我们将元素组织成整体的方式。
Perceptual constancies (size, shape, colour) enable us to recognise objects under changing conditions, illustrating the stability of perception despite variable sensory input.
知觉恒常性（大小、形状、颜色）使我们在条件变化时仍能识别物体，说明尽管感觉输入变化，知觉仍保持稳定。
4. Classical and Operant Conditioning | 经典条件作用与操作性条件作用
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience. Associationist theories explain two fundamental forms: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
学习指由经验引起的行为或知识的相对持久的变化。联想主义理论解释了两种基本形式：经典条件作用和操作性条件作用。
In Pavlov’s classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US, food) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR, salivation). The CS eventually produces a conditioned response (CR).
在巴甫洛夫的经典条件作用中，一个中性刺激（如铃声）在与自然引发无条件反应（唾液分泌）的无条件刺激（食物）多次配对后，变成了条件刺激，最终引发条件反应。
Key phenomena include extinction (CR weakens when CS is presented without US), spontaneous recovery, generalisation, and discrimination.
关键现象包括消退（在只呈现CS而无US时CR减弱）、自然恢复、泛化和分化。
Skinner’s operant conditioning explains learning through consequences. Reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behaviour; punishment decreases it.
斯金纳的操作性条件作用解释通过后果进行的学习。强化（正强化或负强化）增加行为发生的可能性；惩罚则降低它。
Schedules of reinforcement affect response patterns: fixed-ratio schedules produce high response rates with a post-reinforcement pause; variable-ratio schedules (like gambling) generate steady, high rates of responding.
强化程式影响反应模式：固定比率程式产生高反应率，并在强化后出现停顿；可变比率程式（如赌博）则产生持续的高反应率。
5. Memory Models | 记忆模型
The multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin) describes memory as a flow of information through sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information is transferred via attention and rehearsal.
多贮存模型（阿特金森和谢夫林）将记忆描述为信息流经感觉登记、短时记忆和长时记忆的过程。信息通过注意和复述实现转移。
STM holds about 7±2 items for approximately 18–30 seconds without rehearsal. Chunking can expand its capacity.
短时记忆在无复述的情况下可容纳约 7±2 个组块，保持 18–30 秒。组块化可以扩大其容量。
The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch) replaces the unitary STM with a central executive that coordinates two slave systems: the phonological loop (verbal/acoustic information) and the visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial). The episodic buffer was later added to integrate information.
工作记忆模型（巴德利和希奇）用中央执行器取代了单一短时记忆，中央执行器协调两个从属系统：语音回路（言语/听觉信息）和视空间画板（视觉/空间）。后来加入了情景缓冲器以整合信息。
Long-term memory is divided into declarative (explicit) memory—episodic (personal events) and semantic (facts)—and non-declarative (implicit) memory, such as procedural skills and priming.
长时记忆分为陈述性（外显）记忆——情景记忆（个人事件）和语义记忆（事实）——以及非陈述性（内隐）记忆，如程序性技能和启动效应。
Forgetting can result from trace decay, proactive interference (old learning disrupts new), retroactive interference (new learning disrupts old), or retrieval failure (lack of cues).
遗忘可能由痕迹消退、前摄干扰（旧学习干扰新学习）、倒摄干扰（新学习干扰旧学习）或提取失败（缺乏线索）导致。
6. Cognitive Development | 认知发展
Piaget’s theory posits that children actively construct knowledge through schemas. Cognitive development occurs in four universal stages, each characterised by qualitatively different thinking.
皮亚杰的理论认为儿童通过图式主动建构知识。认知发展经历四个普遍阶段，每个阶段都具有性质不同的思维方式。
The sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years) involves learning through senses and actions; the milestone of object permanence is achieved around 8–12 months.
感知运动阶段（0–2岁）通过感觉和动作学习；约 8–12 个月时获得客体永久性这一里程碑。
The preoperational stage (2–7 years) features symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and animism, but lacks conservation and logical reasoning.
前运算阶段（2–7岁）具有象征性思维、自我中心和泛灵论，但尚未获得守恒和逻辑推理能力。
Concrete operational children (7–11 years) grasp conservation, reversibility, and classification, but their reasoning is tied to concrete objects.
具体运算阶段儿童（7–11岁）掌握守恒、可逆性和分类，但推理仍局限于具体事物。
Formal operational thinkers (11+ years) can reason abstractly, formulate hypotheses, and engage in systematic problem solving.
形式运算阶段（11岁以上）能够进行抽象推理、提出假设并开展系统的问题解决。
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory highlights the zone of proximal development—the gap between what a learner can do alone and with guidance. Scaffolding by a more knowledgeable other supports cognitive growth.
维果茨基的社会文化理论强调最近发展区——学习者在独立完成与在指导下所能完成的任务之间的差距。由更有知识的他人提供的支架式帮助支持认知发展。
7. Social Influence | 社会影响
Social influence refers to how the real or imagined presence of others affects our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Two classic areas are conformity and obedience.
社会影响指他人实际或想象中的在场如何影响我们的思想、情感和行为。两个经典领域是从众和服从。
Asch’s conformity experiments showed that participants often conformed to a unanimous group’s incorrect judgment about line lengths. Conformity can take the form of compliance (public agreement), identification (temporary change), or internalisation (genuine acceptance).
阿希的从众实验表明，参与者常会遵从群体对线段长度的一致错误判断。从众可分为顺从（公开同意）、认同（暂时改变）和内化（真正接受）。
Factors affecting conformity include group size, unanimity, task difficulty, and culture. A single dissenter significantly reduces conformity.
影响从众的因素包括群体规模、一致性、任务难度和文化。只要有一个异议者就能显著降低从众水平。
Milgram’s obedience studies revealed that ordinary people would administer severe shocks to a learner when instructed by an authority figure. Proximity of the victim and authority, as well as the presence of disobedient peers, influenced obedience rates.
米尔格拉姆的服从研究显示，普通人在权威人物的指示下会向学习者施加严重电击。受害者与权威的接近性以及不服从同伴的在场都会影响服从率。
Social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort in a group than when working alone, particularly when individual contributions are not identifiable. Deindividuation involves a loss of self-awareness in crowds, often leading to disinhibited behaviour.
当在团体中工作时，若个人贡献无法被识别，个体往往会减少努力，这称为社会懈怠。去个体化指在人群中自我意识丧失，常导致去抑制行为。
8. Psychological Disorders | 心理障碍
Psychological disorders are clinically significant disturbances in cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour. The DSM-5 provides diagnostic criteria to ensure reliable classification.
心理障碍是认知、情绪调节或行为方面具有临床意义的紊乱。DSM-5 提供诊断标准以确保分类的信度。
Major depressive disorder is characterised by at least two weeks of depressed mood or loss of interest, accompanied by changes in sleep, appetite, and concentration. It is one of the most prevalent mood disorders.
重度抑郁障碍的特征是至少两周的心境低落或兴趣丧失，并伴有睡眠、食欲和注意力方面的变化。这是最常见的心境障碍之一。
Biological explanations of depression implicate low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine, as well as genetic predispositions. Cognitive explanations (Beck) propose negative self-schemas and the cognitive triad of negative views about the self, world, and future.
抑郁症的生物学解释将其归因于血清素和去甲肾上腺素水平偏低以及遗传易感性。认知解释（贝克）提出了消极自我图式以及关于自我、世界和未来的消极认知三联征。
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) involves persistent, intrusive obsessions and repetitive compulsions aimed at reducing anxiety. Effective treatments include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), particularly exposure and response prevention.
强迫症涉及持续性的闯入性强迫思维和旨在减轻焦虑的重复性强迫行为。有效治疗包括选择性血清素再摄取抑制剂（SSRIs）和认知行为治疗（CBT），尤其是暴露与反应阻止疗法。
Schizophrenia is a severe disorder marked by positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions), negative symptoms (flat affect, social withdrawal), and cognitive deficits. The dopamine hypothesis suggests that hyperactivity in dopamine pathways contributes to positive symptoms.
精神分裂症是一种严重障碍，表现为阳性症状（幻觉、妄想）、阴性症状（情感淡漠、社交退缩）和认知缺陷。多巴胺假说认为多巴胺通路的过度活跃导致了阳性症状。
9. Research Methods | 研究方法
Psychological research employs a range of methods to generate and test hypotheses. Experiments are the gold standard for establishing cause and effect because they manipulate an independent variable (IV) while controlling extraneous variables.
心理学研究运用多种方法生成和检验假设。实验是确立因果关系的黄金标准，因为它在操纵自变量（IV）的同时控制了无关变量。
Laboratory experiments offer high internal validity and replicability but may lack ecological validity. Field experiments take place in natural settings, enhancing mundane realism but reducing control. Quasi-experiments use naturally occurring IVs (e.g., gender) where random allocation is impossible.
实验室实验具有较高的内部效度和可重复性，但可能缺乏生态效度。现场实验在自然环境中进行，提高了日常真实性但减少了控制。准实验使用自然存在的自变量（如性别），无法随机分配。
Correlational research measures the relationship between two co-variables, expressed by a correlation coefficient (r) ranging from −1 to +1. Correlation does not imply causation; a third variable may influence both.
相关研究测量两个协变量之间的关系，用相关系数（r）表示，范围从 –1 到 +1。相关不意味着因果；可能存在影响两者的第三变量。
Observational techniques can be naturalistic or controlled, and participant or non-participant. Data may be gathered through structured or unstructured interviews and self-report questionnaires (e.g., Likert scales).
观察技术可分为自然观察或控制观察、参与观察或非参与观察。数据可通过结构化或非结构化访谈以及自陈问卷（如利克特量表）收集。
Reliability (consistency over time, across observers, or across items) and validity (whether the instrument measures what it claims) are essential for credible research. Pilot studies and counterbalancing help improve study design.
信度（跨时间、观察者或项目的一致性）和效度（工具是否测量了其声称要测量的内容）对研究可信度至关重要。预实验和平衡设计有助于完善研究方案。
10. Ethical Considerations | 伦理考量
Professional bodies such as the British Psychological Society (BPS) and the American Psychological Association (APA) set ethical guidelines to protect participants from harm. Core principles include respect, competence, responsibility, and integrity.
英国心理学会（BPS）和美国心理学会（APA）等专业机构制定伦理准则以保护参与者免受伤害。核心原则包括尊重、胜任力、责任和诚信。
Informed consent requires that participants understand the nature, purpose, and potential risks of a study before agreeing to take part. If deception is unavoidable, it must be justified and followed by a thorough debrief.
知情同意要求参与者在同意参加前了解研究的性质、目的和潜在风险。若欺骗不可避免，则必须证明其合理性，并在事后进行详尽的事后解释。
Debriefing involves explaining the true aims of the study, addressing any misunderstandings, and ensuring participants leave without undue distress. The right to withdraw allows participants to leave at any time without penalty.
事后解释包括说明研究的真实目的、澄清误解并确保参与者离开时没有过度不适。退出权允许参与者随时退出而不受惩罚。
Confidentiality means that personal data are anonymised and stored securely. Researchers must also protect participants from physical and psychological harm, employing cost–benefit analyses to weigh risks against scientific or societal benefits.
保密意味着个人数据将被匿名化并安全存储。研究者还必须保护参与者免受身心伤害，运用成本-收益分析权衡风险与科学或社会效益。
Animal research ethics are guided by the ‘three Rs’: replacement (using alternatives whenever possible), reduction (minimising the number of animals), and refinement (improving procedures to reduce suffering).
动物研究伦理遵循 3R 原则：替代（尽可能使用替代方法）、减少（尽量减少动物数量）和优化（改进程序以减少痛苦）。
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