📚 Developmental Psychology Past Paper Analysis | 发展心理学真题精选解析
Developmental psychology focuses on the systematic changes and continuities that occur across the human lifespan. It examines physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth from infancy to old age. For students preparing for A-level Psychology, understanding how to answer exam questions on developmental topics is crucial for success. This article presents a carefully curated selection of past paper-style questions with detailed analyses of what makes a high-scoring answer. By reading through the model paragraphs and evaluation points, you will learn how to integrate key theories, relevant studies, and critical thinking into your responses.
发展心理学关注人类从婴儿到老年的系统性变化与连续性，涵盖生理、认知、社会性和情感等领域。对备考 A-level 心理学的同学来说，掌握发展心理学部分真题的答题方法至关重要。本文精选典型真题，详细分析高分答案的构成要素。通过阅读示范段落和评价要点，你将学会如何在答案中整合核心理论、关键研究和批判性思考。
1. Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory | Bowlby 的单向依恋理论
Question: Outline and evaluate Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment. (12 marks) This question requires you to describe the key features of the theory and then offer balanced evaluation points supported by evidence. Begin by defining attachment as a deep emotional bond. Explain Bowlby’s idea that infants have an innate drive to form one primary attachment to a caregiver (monotropy), the critical period (birth to 2–3 years), social releasers (e.g., smiling, crying), and the internal working model (IWM) that shapes future relationships. Use precise terminology.
题型：简述并评价 Bowlby 的单向依恋理论（12分）。这道题要求你先描述理论的关键特征，再提出有证据支持的平衡评价。首先将依恋定义为深刻的情感纽带。然后解释 Bowlby 的观点：婴儿天生具有与一个主要照看者形成单向依恋的内驱力、关键期（出生到2-3岁）、社会释放器（如微笑、哭泣）以及影响未来关系的内部工作模型（IWM）。务必使用准确术语。
A model descriptive paragraph: Bowlby proposed that attachment is adaptive and evolved to increase survival. Infants are biologically pre-programmed to form a single primary attachment, usually to the mother, a concept called monotropy. He argued that this attachment must develop within a critical period of approximately two years; failure to do so could result in irreversible damage to the child’s emotional development. Social releasers, such as crying and babbling, activate adult caregiving systems, while the quality of early attachment forms an internal working model—a mental template for expectations in future relationships.
示范描述段：Bowlby 提出依恋是适应性的，进化以来提高生存机会。婴儿在生物学上预设会形成一个主要的依恋对象，通常是母亲，即单向性概念。他认为这种依恋必须在约两年的关键期内形成，否则会对儿童情感发展造成不可逆的伤害。社会释放器（如哭泣和咿呀学语）激活成人的照顾系统，而早期依恋质量形成一个内部工作模型——未来关系中期望的心理模板。
For evaluation, discuss supporting research. Harlow’s monkeys (1959) preferred cloth surrogate mothers, showing that comfort matters more than food alone, supporting the idea of an innate need for attachment. Lorenz’s imprinting in goslings also suggests a critical period. However, Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that many infants form multiple attachments, challenging monotropy. Furthermore, the concept of a strict critical period has been revised to a sensitive period, as later intervention (e.g., adoption) can lead to recovery. Also consider cultural variations—some cultures practice communal child-rearing where multiple attachments are the norm.
评价部分需讨论支持性研究。Harlow 的恒河猴实验（1959）表明幼猴偏爱绒布母猴而非仅提供食物的铁丝母猴，证明舒适比食物更重要，支持依恋的先天需求。Lorenz 的灰雁印刻研究也暗示关键期的存在。然而，Schaffer 和 Emerson（1964）发现许多婴儿会形成多重依恋，质疑单向性。此外，严格的“关键期”概念已被修订为“敏感期”，因为后期干预（如领养）可以带来恢复。还应考虑文化差异——有些文化实行共同育儿，多重依恋是常态。
2. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation | Ainsworth 的陌生情境实验
Question: Describe Ainsworth’s Strange Situation and discuss what it revealed about types of attachment. (10 marks) Begin by outlining the procedure: a structured observation lasting about 20 minutes involving 8 episodes of separation and reunion between a caregiver and an infant in an unfamiliar room. The key measures are separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, reunion behaviour, and use of the caregiver as a secure base. Then identify the three main attachment types Ainsworth identified: Type A (insecure-avoidant), Type B (secure), and Type C (insecure-resistant/ambivalent).
题型：描述 Ainsworth 的陌生情境实验并讨论它揭示了哪些依恋类型（10分）。先概述程序：为时约20分钟的结构化观察，包含8个片段，让照看者与婴儿在一个陌生房间里经历分离和重聚。关键测量指标包括分离焦虑、陌生人焦虑、重聚行为以及将照看者作为安全基地的情况。然后指出 Ainsworth 发现的三类主要依恋类型：A 型（不安全-回避型）、B 型（安全型）和 C 型（不安全-抗拒/矛盾型）。
Key procedural details: The Strange Situation involves the infant and caregiver in a playroom; a stranger enters, the caregiver leaves, the caregiver returns, the stranger leaves, the caregiver leaves the infant alone, the stranger returns, and finally the caregiver returns. Episodes are designed to increase stress progressively. Researchers code the infant’s reactions, particularly proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviour during reunion episodes.
关键程序细节：陌生情境中，婴儿和照看者待在游戏室里；陌生人进入，照看者离开，照看者返回，陌生人离开，照看者再次离开让婴儿独处，陌生人返回，最后照看者返回。片段设计使压力逐步增加。研究者对婴儿的反应进行编码，尤其是重聚片段中的寻求亲近和维持接触行为。
Findings and attachment types: Securely attached infants (Type B, ~65%) use the caregiver as a secure base, show moderate distress on separation, and greet the caregiver positively on return. Insecure-avoidant infants (Type A, ~20%) ignore the caregiver and treat the stranger similarly, showing low anxiety. Insecure-resistant infants (Type C, ~10%) exhibit mixed behaviour, clingy yet angry upon reunion. A fourth type, disorganised (Type D), was later added by Main and Solomon due to contradictory behaviours. Evaluate the strengths: high reliability due to controlled observation, and predictive validity—secure attachment correlates with better social competence in childhood. Limitations include cultural bias; the Strange Situation was developed in the USA and may not assess attachment in collectivist cultures where reunion behaviour differs.
发现与依恋类型：安全型依恋婴儿（B 型，约占65%）将照看者作为安全基地，分离时表现出中度苦恼，重聚时积极迎接。不安全-回避型（A 型，约占20%）忽视照看者，对待陌生人态度相似，焦虑水平低。不安全-抗拒型（C 型，约占10%）表现出矛盾行为，既粘人又在重聚时愤怒。后来 Main 和 Solomon 又增加了第四种——混乱型（D 型），因其行为矛盾。评价其优点：由于是控制观察，信度较高；且具有预测效度——安全型依恋与童年期更好的社会能力相关。局限性包括文化偏见；陌生情境在美国开发，可能无法有效评估集体主义文化中的依恋，因为那里的重聚行为有所不同。
3. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段
Question: Outline Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, using examples of schemas and stages. (8 marks) Piaget proposed that children construct their understanding of the world through schemas—mental frameworks that organise knowledge. Cognitive development occurs through two adaptive processes: assimilation (fitting new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (modifying schemas to fit new information). Equilibration drives the shift from one stage to the next. The four stages are: sensorimotor (0–2 years), pre-operational (2–7 years), concrete operational (7–11 years), and formal operational (11+ years).
题型：简述皮亚杰的认知发展理论，用图式（schema）和阶段举例说明（8分）。皮亚杰提出，儿童通过图式（组织的心理框架）来建构对世界的理解。认知发展通过两个适应过程进行：同化（将新信息纳入已有图式）和顺应（修改图式以适应新信息）。平衡化驱动从一个阶段过渡到下一个阶段。四个阶段为：感知运动阶段（0-2岁）、前运算阶段（2-7岁）、具体运算阶段（7-11岁）和形式运算阶段（11岁以上）。
Provide stage-specific examples. Sensorimotor: infants learn through senses and actions; they develop object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when out of sight) around 8–12 months. Pre-operational: children engage in symbolic play and use language but are egocentric (can only see the world from their own perspective) and fail conservation tasks (e.g., liquid volume). Concrete operational: children can conserve, classify, and reason logically about concrete objects, but not abstract concepts. Formal operational: adolescents can think abstractly, hypothetically-deductively, and engage in systematic problem-solving.
提供各阶段的例子。感知运动阶段：婴儿通过感官和动作学习；大约在8-12个月时发展出客体永久性（知道物体移出视线后依然存在）。前运算阶段：儿童进行符号游戏并使用语言，但具有自我中心性（只能从自己的视角看世界），且无法完成守恒任务（如液体体积守恒）。具体运算阶段：儿童能够守恒、分类，并对具体事物进行逻辑推理，但无法处理抽象概念。形式运算阶段：青少年能进行抽象思维、假设演绎推理和系统性问题解决。
Evaluation: Strengths of Piaget’s theory include its huge influence on education and the recognition that children think qualitatively differently from adults. Many of his observations have been replicated. However, researchers like Donaldson argued that tasks were too abstract and that children can conserve earlier if the task makes ‘human sense’ (e.g., the Naughty Teddy study). Also, the stage theory may underestimate cultural factors; children in some cultures reach the formal operational stage differently. Piaget’s emphasis on discovery learning has been criticised as not always efficient; Vygotsky highlighted the role of social guidance.
评价：皮亚杰理论的优点包括对教育产生巨大影响，并认识到儿童的思维与成人有质的不同。他的许多观察得以重复验证。然而，Donaldson 等研究者认为任务过于抽象，如果任务符合“人的直觉”（如“顽皮熊”实验），儿童能更早进行守恒推理。此外，阶段理论可能低估了文化因素；某些文化中的儿童获得形式运算的方式不同。皮亚杰强调发现学习，被批评并非总是高效；Vygotsky 则强调了社会指导的作用。
4. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory | 维果茨基的社会文化理论
Question: Compare Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development with Piaget’s theory. (8 marks) Vygotsky argued that cognitive development is a socially mediated process, where children learn through interaction with more knowledgeable others (MKO). Core concepts include the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the difference between what a child can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance—and scaffolding, where the MKO adjusts support to facilitate learning. Language is a crucial cultural tool that transforms thought.
题型：比较维果茨基的社会文化认知发展理论与皮亚杰的理论（8分）。维果茨基认为认知发展是一个社会中介过程，儿童通过与更有知识的他人（MKO）互动来学习。核心概念包括最近发展区（ZPD）——儿童独立解决问题所能达到的水平与其在他人指导下能达到的水平之间的差距——以及支架作用，即 MKO 调整支持以促进学习。语言是一种关键的文化工具，它转换思维。
Similarities and differences: Both theorists emphasise that children actively construct knowledge and that development occurs in stages. However, Piaget focused on individual exploration and biological maturation, whereas Vygotsky stressed the social and cultural context. For Piaget, cognitive development drives language; for Vygotsky, language drives thought (first social speech, then egocentric speech, then inner speech). Piaget saw the child as a ‘little scientist’; Vygotsky saw the child as a ‘little apprentice’.
异同点：两位理论家都强调儿童主动建构知识且发展呈阶段性。但皮亚杰关注个体探索和生物成熟，而维果茨基强调社会文化情境。皮亚杰认为认知发展驱动语言；维果茨基则认为语言驱动思维（先有社会性言语，再有自我中心言语，最后为内部言语）。皮亚杰视儿童为“小科学家”；维果茨基视儿童为“小学徒”。
Evidence for Vygotsky: Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) demonstrated scaffolding in a problem-solving task where the tutor adjusted help. Freund (1990) found that children who worked with a mother using the ZPD performed better on a sorting task than those who worked alone. Cross-cultural research shows that cognitive skills are valued differently across cultures, supporting the sociocultural emphasis. Limitation: Vygotsky’s theory is less specific about biological influences and individual differences. Also, the concept of the ZPD is difficult to operationalise and measure precisely.
支持维果茨基的证据：Wood, Bruner 和 Ross（1976）在问题解决任务中展示了支架作用，指导者调整帮助方式。Freund（1990）发现，与利用 ZPD 进行指导的母亲一起工作的儿童，在分类任务上比独自工作的儿童表现更好。跨文化研究表明，不同文化对认知技能的重视不同，支持社会文化强调。局限性：维果茨基的理论对生物因素和个体差异解释较少，且 ZPD 概念难以操作化和精确测量。
5. Kohlberg’s Moral Development | 科尔伯格的道德发展
Question: Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and evaluate its relevance across cultures. (12 marks) Kohlberg used moral dilemmas (e.g., the Heinz dilemma) to study how people reason about right and wrong. He proposed three levels of moral development, each with two stages. Level 1: Preconventional morality – Stage 1 (obedience and punishment orientation), Stage 2 (instrumental relativism/self-interest). Level 2: Conventional morality – Stage 3 (interpersonal concordance/’good boy/nice girl’), Stage 4 (law and order orientation). Level 3: Postconventional morality – Stage 5 (social contract and individual rights), Stage 6 (universal ethical principles).
题型：描述科尔伯格的道德发展理论并评价其跨文化相关性（12分）。科尔伯格使用道德两难故事（如海因茨偷药）研究人们对是非的推理方式。他提出三个道德发展水平，每个水平包含两个阶段。水平一：前习俗道德——阶段1（服从与惩罚定向），阶段2（工具性相对主义/利己主义）。水平二：习俗道德——阶段3（人际和谐/“好孩子”定向），阶段4（法律与秩序定向）。水平三：后习俗道德——阶段5（社会契约与个人权利），阶段6（普遍伦理原则）。
Expand on an example answer: In response to Heinz stealing the drug to save his wife, a Stage 1 reasoner might say it is wrong because Heinz will be punished. Stage 3 might say Heinz should steal because a good husband would do anything for his wife, or he should not because stealing is a bad boy thing. Stage 5 might argue that the right to life supersedes property laws, but there are also broader social contract considerations. Kohlberg’s method uses the structure of reasoning, not the content of the decision.
示例答案展开：针对海因茨为救妻子而偷药的行为，阶段1的推理者可能会说这是错的，因为海因茨会受惩罚。阶段3的推理者可能说海因茨应该偷药，因为一个好丈夫会为妻子做任何事，或者不应该偷，因为偷东西是坏孩子的行为。阶段5的推理者可能主张生命权高于财产法，但也要考虑更广泛的社会契约。科尔伯格的方法关注推理的结构，而非决定的内容。
Evaluation: Research support from Colby et al. (1983) found that people do progress through stages in sequence, and higher stages are associated with abstract thinking. However, Gilligan (1982) criticised the theory for a male bias, arguing that women’s morality focuses on care and relationships (ethics of care), which Kohlberg’s system undervalues, placing women at Stage 3. Cross-culturally, Snarey (1985) found that while Stages 1–4 appear universal, Stage 5 and 6 are rarer and may reflect Western individualistic values. Additionally, moral reasoning does not always predict moral behaviour, suggesting a gap between thought and action.
评价：Colby 等人（1983）的研究支持了顺序发展的观点，且更高阶段与抽象思维有关。然而，Gilligan（1982）批评该理论存在男性偏见，认为女性的道德更关注关怀和关系（关怀伦理），科尔伯格体系对此评价较低，将女性置于阶段3。跨文化方面，Snarey（1985）发现虽然阶段1到4具有普遍性，但阶段5和6较为罕见，并且可能反映西方个人主义价值观。此外，道德推理并不总能预测道德行为，表明思考与行动之间存在差距。
6. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages | 埃里克森的心理社会发展阶段
Question: Explain Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development and apply one stage to adolescent identity formation. (8 marks) Erikson proposed eight stages across the lifespan, each characterised by a psychosocial crisis that must be resolved for healthy personality development. The first five stages are: Trust vs Mistrust (infancy), Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (early childhood), Initiative vs Guilt (play age), Industry vs Inferiority (school age), and Identity vs Role Confusion (adolescence). Later stages include Intimacy vs Isolation, Generativity vs Stagnation, and Integrity vs Despair.
题型：解释埃里克森的心理社会发展阶段，并将其中一个阶段应用于青少年同一性形成（8分）。埃里克森提出跨越一生的八个阶段，每个阶段都有一个心理社会危机，必须得到解决才能实现健康的人格发展。前五个阶段是：信任对不信任（婴儿期）、自主对羞怯与怀疑（幼儿期）、主动对内疚（游戏期）、勤奋对自卑（学龄期）、同一性对角色混乱（青春期）。后续阶段包括亲密对孤独、繁衍对停滞、完善对绝望。
Focus on the Identity vs Role Confusion stage: During adolescence (roughly 12–18 years), individuals explore who they are and what they want to become. They experiment with different roles, beliefs, and occupations. Successful resolution results in fidelity—the ability to sustain loyalties and a stable sense of self. Failure leads to role confusion, where an adolescent feels unsure about their place in society. James Marcia expanded this idea by proposing four identity statuses based on exploration and commitment: identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement.
聚焦同一性对角色混乱阶段：在青春期（约12-18岁），个体探索自己是谁以及想成为什么样的人。他们尝试不同的角色、信仰和职业。成功解决将形成忠诚的品质——即能够维持忠诚和稳定的自我感。失败则导致角色混乱，使青少年对自己的社会定位感到不确定。James Marcia 对此进行了扩展，根据探索和承诺提出了四种同一性状态：同一性扩散、早闭、延缓达成和同一性获得。
Application example: A 16-year-old trying out different styles and political affiliations, going through a moratorium before committing to a set of values represents identity achievement. Strengths of Erikson’s theory include its lifespan perspective and practical applications in education and counselling. However, it is based on clinical observations and case studies rather than controlled experiments. The stages may be culturally specific, particularly the notion of an individual, independent identity, which may not align with collectivist cultures where family identity is more central.
应用示例：一个16岁的青少年尝试不同的风格和政治立场，在承诺一套价值观之前经历延缓期，这代表同一性获得。埃里克森理论的优势包括涵盖全生命周期的视角以及在教育和咨询中的实际应用。然而，该理论基于临床观察和个案研究，而非控制实验。各阶段可能具有文化特定性，尤其是独立的个体认同概念，这可能与家庭认同更为核心的集体主义文化不相符。
7. Language Development: Nativist vs Behaviourist | 语言发展：先天论与行为主义
Question: Discuss contrasting views of language development, referring to Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device and Skinner’s operant conditioning. (10 marks) Skinner’s behaviourist view claims language is acquired through operant conditioning: children learn to speak by receiving positive reinforcement (like smiles or attention) for making correct sounds, and shaping gradually refines utterances. Imitation also plays a role. Chomsky’s nativist approach argues that language is too complex to be learned solely through environmental input; children possess an innate biological Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that enables them to deduce grammatical rules. Evidence includes the poverty of the stimulus—children produce novel sentences they have never heard.
题型：讨论语言发展的对立观点，涉及乔姆斯基的语言习得装置和斯金纳的操作条件作用（10分）。斯金纳的行为主义观点认为语言是通过操作条件作用习得的：儿童因发出正确的声音而得到正强化（如微笑或关注），塑造过程逐步使话语变得精确，模仿也发挥作用。乔姆斯基的先天论则认为语言过于复杂，不可能仅通过环境输入习得；儿童天生拥有语言习得装置（LAD），使他们能够推演语法规则。证据包括刺激贫乏——儿童能说出从未听过的新句子。
Evaluative points: Support for Chomsky includes the rapid rate of language acquisition in toddlers, the universal stages of language development, and the existence of a critical period for language (e.g., Genie’s case). However, the LAD is hypothetical and lacks neurological basis. The behaviourist view is supported by the role of motherese (child-directed speech) and the finding that children of parents who expand utterances have faster vocabulary growth. Yet, reinforcement alone cannot explain the creative and rule-governed nature of children’s speech. Both theories have given way to interactionist approaches, such as Bruner’s Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), which emphasises social interaction.
评价要点：支持乔姆斯基的证据包括幼儿语言习得速度极快、语言发展具有普遍阶段以及语言存在关键期（如Genie 案例）。然而，LAD 是假设性的，缺乏神经基础。行为主义观点得到妈妈语（对婴儿言语）作用的支持，且父母扩展言语的孩子词汇增长更快。可是，仅靠强化无法解释儿童言语的创造性和规则性。如今这两种理论已被互动论取代，如布鲁纳的语言习得支持系统（LASS），强调社会互动的作用。
8. Theory of Mind and Autism | 心理理论（Theory of Mind）与自闭症
Question: Describe what is meant by theory of mind (ToM) and explain how research on autism has informed this concept. (8 marks) Theory of mind refers to the ability to understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, emotions, and desires that may differ from one’s own. It is typically tested using false-belief tasks, such as the Sally-Anne task (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985). In this task, children must predict that Sally will look for her marble in the basket where she left it, not where Anne moved it, demonstrating an understanding of false belief.
题型：解释什么是心理理论（ToM），并说明关于自闭症的研究如何加深对这一概念的理解（8分）。心理理论指理解他人拥有可能与自己不同的想法、信念、情感和愿望的能力。通常使用错误信念任务进行测试，如 Sally-Anne 任务（Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985）。在该任务中，儿童需要预测 Sally 会在她原来放弹珠的篮子里寻找，而不是在 Anne 移走后的盒子里找，从而表现出对错误信念的理解。
Findings from autism research: Baron-Cohen et al. found that while 85% of typically developing children and 86% of Down syndrome children passed the task, only 20% of children with autism did, despite having normal IQ. This suggests that autism involves a specific deficit in ToM, not general intellectual impairment. The ‘mindblindness’ hypothesis proposes that individuals with autism lack the cognitive module for representing mental states. Further research has refined this, pointing to a broader deficit in executive functions or central coherence. The ToM deficit helps explain the social and communication difficulties in autism, though not all symptoms, such as repetitive behaviours or sensory sensitivities.
自闭症研究结果：Baron-Cohen 等人发现，85% 的正常发育儿童和 86% 的唐氏综合征儿童通过了任务，而自闭症儿童中只有 20% 通过，尽管智商正常。这表明自闭症存在特定的 ToM 缺陷，而非普遍智力损伤。’心灵盲’假说认为自闭症个体缺乏表征心理状态的认知模块。后续研究对此进行了完善，指出可能是执行功能或中心整合能力的广泛缺陷。ToM 缺陷有助于解释自闭症的社交和沟通困难，尽管不能解释所有症状，如重复行为或感觉过敏。
9. Adolescent Brain Development | 青春期大脑发展
Question: Discuss neurobiological changes in adolescence and how they relate to risk-taking behaviour. (8 marks) The adolescent brain undergoes significant structural and functional changes. The prefrontal cortex (PFC), responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and planning, matures slowly and is not fully developed until the mid-20s. Meanwhile, the limbic system, which processes emotions and rewards, matures earlier and becomes hyper-responsive to social rewards and novelty. This developmental mismatch, often called the dual-systems model, creates a period of heightened susceptibility to risk-taking.
题型：讨论青春期神经生物学的变化及其与冒险行为的关系（8分）。青春期大脑经历显著的结构和功能变化。负责决策、冲动控制和计划的前额叶皮层（PFC）成熟缓慢，直到25岁左右才完全发育。与此同时，处理情绪和奖赏的边缘系统较早成熟，并对社会奖励和新奇事物变得高度敏感。这种发育不匹配常被称为双系统模型，导致青春期冒险行为的易感性增加。
Supporting evidence: Galvan et al. (2006) used fMRI to show that adolescents show greater nucleus accumbens activation in response to reward anticipation than children or adults. Steinberg’s (2008) studies found that in laboratory driving games, adolescents took more risks when with peers, and this peer influence was linked to heightened activation in reward-related regions. Strengths of the neurobiological approach include objective physiological measures; however, it is reductionist—it may oversimplify the complex social, cognitive, and emotional factors that influence behaviour. There is also variation: not all adolescents engage in high risk-taking, and individual differences in brain maturation matter.
支持证据：Galvan 等人（2006）的 fMRI 研究显示，青少年在预期奖赏时伏隔核的激活程度高于儿童和成人。Steinberg（2008）的研究发现，在实验室驾驶游戏中，青少年与同伴在一起时冒险行为增多，且同伴影响与奖赏相关区域激活增强有关。神经生物学方法的优势在于客观的生理测量，但它是还原论的——可能过度简化影响行为的社会、认知和情绪复杂因素。也存在个体差异：并非所有青少年都高度冒险，大脑成熟的个体差异很重要。
10. Social Development in Older Adulthood | 老年期的社会发展
Question: Explain how social development theory explains successful ageing, with reference to Disengagement Theory and Activity Theory. (10 marks) Two classic theories offer contrasting views on optimal ageing. Cumming and Henry’s (1961) Disengagement Theory proposes that with physical decline and awareness of mortality, older adults naturally withdraw from social roles, and this mutual withdrawal benefits both the individual and society by transferring power to the young. In contrast, Havighurst’s Activity Theory suggests that successful ageing occurs when individuals remain active and maintain social interactions, substituting new roles for lost ones. Evidence generally favours Activity Theory: longitudinal studies find that social engagement correlates with better health and life satisfaction.
题型：解释社会发展理论如何说明成功老化，结合疏离理论和活动理论（10分）。两种经典理论对最优老化提出了对立的观点。Cumming 和 Henry（1961）的疏离理论提出，随着身体衰退和对死亡的意识，老年人自然会从社会角色中退出，这种双向退出有利于个人和社会，将权力转移给年轻人。相反，Havighurst 的活动理论主张，成功老化发生在个体保持活跃并维持社会互动，用新角色替代失去的角色时。证据普遍支持活动理论：纵向研究发现，社会参与与更好的健康和生活满意度相关。
Evaluate using research: A supportive study for Activity Theory is the Harvard Grant Study, which found that social connectedness is a key predictor of happiness in old age. Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST) offers a more nuanced perspective: as time horizons shrink, older adults prioritise emotionally meaningful goals and relationships, selectively disengaging from peripheral contacts while deepening close ties. This reinterprets selective withdrawal as adaptive, not passively disengaging. Criticisms of Disengagement Theory include its claim of universality; many older adults remain highly engaged in work, volunteering, or family caregiving. The theory also reflected the societal norms of its era, when retirement was strongly enforced.
用研究来评价：活动理论的支持研究之一是哈佛大学格兰特研究，发现社会联结是老年幸福感的关键预测因素。Carstensen 的社会情绪选择理论（SST）提供了一个更细致的视角：随着时间视野缩短，老年人优先考虑情绪上有意义的目标和关系，选择性地退出外围联系，同时加深亲密关系。这重新解释了选择性退缩是适应性的，而非被动脱离。对疏离理论的批评包括其声称的普遍性；许多老年人仍然高度参与工作、志愿服务或家庭照护。该理论也反映了其所处时代的社会规范，当时强制退休很普遍。
11. Research Methods in Developmental Psychology | 发展心理学研究方法
Question: Evaluate the use of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs in developmental research. (8 marks) A longitudinal design involves studying the same participants over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes with age and control for cohort effects. However, it is time-consuming, expensive,
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