📚 SAT2 Physics Core Vocabulary Guide | SAT2 物理核心词汇汇总
Mastering the essential vocabulary is a crucial step towards success in the SAT Subject Test in Physics. Even though the SAT2 has been discontinued, the core terms remain fundamental for any high school physics curriculum and college-level preparation. This guide provides clear, concise English definitions paired with precise Chinese translations, covering mechanics, electricity, waves, thermodynamics, and modern physics. Each term is presented so you can build a solid bilingual foundation for solving problems and interpreting scientific texts.
掌握核心词汇是 SAT2 物理考试成功的关键一步。虽然 SAT2 考试已经取消，但这些核心术语仍然是任何高中物理课程和大学预科学习的基础。本指南通过清晰的英文定义与精准的中文翻译配对，涵盖力学、电学、波、热学和现代物理。每个术语都旨在帮助你建立坚实的双语基础，从而更好地解题并理解科学文献。
1. Fundamental Concepts and Measurement | 基本概念与测量
Scalar: A physical quantity that is completely described by its magnitude (size) alone, such as mass, time, and temperature. Scalars obey ordinary arithmetic rules.
标量：仅由其大小（数值）就能完整描述的物理量，例如质量、时间和温度。标量遵循普通算术规则。
Vector: A quantity that possesses both magnitude and direction, like displacement, velocity, and force. Vectors are added and subtracted using geometric or component methods.
矢量（向量）：同时具有大小和方向的量，如位移、速度和力。矢量通过几何法或分量法进行加减。
Displacement: The change in position of an object; it is a vector pointing from the initial position to the final position. The magnitude is the shortest distance between the two points.
位移：物体位置的变化；它是从初位置指向末位置的矢量。其大小是两点之间的最短距离。
Distance: A scalar quantity representing the total path length traveled by an object, regardless of direction. Distance is always positive and never decreases.
路程：表示物体运动轨迹总长度的标量，与方向无关。路程恒为正值且永不减小。
Significant figures: The digits in a measurement that are known reliably, plus one final digit that is uncertain. They indicate the precision of a measurement instrument.
有效数字：测量中可靠知道的数字，再加上最后一位不确定的数字。它们反映了测量仪器的精度。
System of units (SI): The International System of Units, based on meters (m) for length, kilograms (kg) for mass, and seconds (s) for time. Many SAT2 problems require consistent SI unit usage.
国际单位制 (SI)：以米 (m) 为长度单位、千克 (kg) 为质量单位、秒 (s) 为时间单位的国际单位制。许多 SAT2 题目要求统一使用 SI 单位。
2. Kinematics | 运动学
Velocity: The rate of change of displacement. It is a vector: v = Δx / Δt. Instantaneous velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time.
速度：位移的变化率。它是一个矢量：v = Δx / Δt。瞬时速度是位置对时间的导数。
Speed: The scalar magnitude of velocity, or the rate at which distance is covered. Average speed = total distance / total time.
速率：速度的标量大小，或者路程随时间的变化率。平均速率 = 总路程 / 总时间。
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity. It is a vector: a = Δv / Δt. Negative acceleration (deceleration) means acceleration in the opposite direction to motion.
加速度：速度的变化率。它是一个矢量：a = Δv / Δt。负加速度（减速度）表示加速度方向与运动方向相反。
Uniformly accelerated motion: Motion under constant acceleration, described by the kinematic equations: v = u + at, s = ut + ½at², v² = u² + 2as, s = ½(u+v)t.
匀加速运动：在恒定加速度下的运动，用运动学方程描述：v = u + at，s = ut + ½at²，v² = u² + 2as，s = ½(u+v)t。
Projectile motion: The curved path of an object launched into the air, subject only to gravity. The horizontal and vertical components are independent: horizontal velocity stays constant, while vertical motion has constant downward acceleration g.
抛体运动：物体只受重力作用时在空中划出的曲线路径。水平和竖直分量相互独立：水平速度恒定，竖直方向具有恒定的向下加速度 g。
Free fall: Motion under the influence of gravity alone, with no air resistance. All objects fall with the same acceleration g ≈ 9.8 m/s² near Earth’s surface.
自由落体：仅受重力作用、无空气阻力的运动。所有物体在地表附近均以相同加速度 g ≈ 9.8 m/s² 下落。
3. Dynamics and Forces | 动力学与力
Force: An interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. It is a vector measured in newtons (N). Net force = mass × acceleration (Newton’s second law).
力：未被平衡时将改变物体运动状态的相互作用。它是矢量，单位为牛顿 (N)。合力 = 质量 × 加速度（牛顿第二定律）。
Inertia: The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion. Mass is a quantitative measure of inertia.
惯性：物体抵抗其运动状态变化的趋势。质量是惯性大小的量度。
Newton’s first law: An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with constant velocity, unless acted upon by a net external force.
牛顿第一定律：任何物体都将保持静止或匀速直线运动状态，除非有净外力迫使它改变这种状态。
Newton’s third law: For every action force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force. These two forces act on different objects and never cancel each other.
牛顿第三定律：每一个作用力都有一个大小相等、方向相反的反作用力。这两个力作用在不同物体上，永远不会相互抵消。
Friction: A force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Static friction prevents motion, while kinetic friction acts during sliding: fₖ = μₖ N.
摩擦力：阻碍接触面之间相对运动的力。静摩擦力阻止运动发生，动摩擦力在滑动时起作用：fₖ = μₖ N。
Normal force: The contact force exerted by a surface perpendicular to the surface. It adjusts to balance other forces in the perpendicular direction.
法向力（支持力）：接触面施加的垂直于表面的力。它会调整自身大小以平衡垂直方向上的其他力。
Tension: The pulling force transmitted along a string, rope, or cable when it is taut. Tension is the same throughout a massless, frictionless rope.
张力：沿拉紧的细绳、绳索或缆绳传递的拉力。在理想轻绳（无质量、无摩擦）中张力处处相等。
4. Work, Energy, and Power | 功、能与功率
Work: The energy transferred to an object when a force acts on it over a displacement. W = F d cosθ, where θ is the angle between force and displacement vectors. Work is measured in joules (J).
功：力作用在物体上并使其发生位移时所传递的能量。W = F d cosθ，其中 θ 是力与位移之间的夹角。功的单位是焦耳 (J)。
Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by an object due to its motion. KE = ½mv², where m is mass and v is speed. Kinetic energy is always non-negative.
动能：物体由于运动而具有的能量。KE = ½mv²，其中 m 是质量，v 是速率。动能恒为非负值。
Potential energy: Stored energy that depends on an object’s position or configuration. Gravitational potential energy near Earth’s surface: U = mgh. Elastic potential energy: U = ½kx².
势能：取决于物体位置或形状的储存能量。地表附近的重力势能：U = mgh；弹性势能：U = ½kx²。
Conservation of mechanical energy: In the absence of non-conservative forces (friction, air resistance), the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of a system remains constant.
机械能守恒：在没有非保守力（如摩擦力、空气阻力）的情况下，系统的总机械能（动能 + 势能）保持不变。
Power: The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. P = W / t＝Fv (for constant force along the motion). Power is measured in watts (W).
功率：做功或能量传递的速率。P = W / t = Fv（当力与运动方向一致时）。功率的单位是瓦特 (W)。
Efficiency: The ratio of useful work output to total energy input, often expressed as a percentage. Efficiency = (output work / input energy) × 100%.
效率：有用输出功与总输入能量的比值，通常用百分比表示。效率 = (输出功 / 输入能量) × 100%。
5. Momentum and Collisions | 动量与碰撞
Momentum: The product of an object’s mass and its velocity. p = mv. Momentum is a vector quantity and is conserved in isolated systems.
动量：物体质量与其速度的乘积。p = mv。动量是矢量，在孤立系统中守恒。
Impulse: The change in momentum of an object when a force acts over a time interval. J = F Δt = Δp. Impulse equals the area under a force-time graph.
冲量：力在一段时间内作用时物体动量的变化。J = F Δt = Δp。冲量等于力-时间图下的面积。
Conservation of linear momentum: In the absence of external forces, the total momentum of a system remains constant before and after a collision or explosion.
动量守恒定律：在没有外力作用的条件下，系统在碰撞或爆炸前后的总动量保持恒定。
Elastic collision: A collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. Objects bounce apart with no permanent deformation or generation of heat.
弹性碰撞：动量和动能均守恒的碰撞。物体弹开，没有永久形变或热量产生。
Inelastic collision: A collision where momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. A perfectly inelastic collision means objects stick together after impact.
非弹性碰撞：动量守恒但动能不守恒的碰撞。完全非弹性碰撞中，物体碰撞后粘连在一起。
Center of mass: The point representing the average position of all mass in a system. The motion of the center of mass is determined only by external forces.
质心：代表系统中所有质量平均位置的点。质心的运动仅由外力决定。
6. Circular Motion and Gravitation | 圆周运动与引力
Uniform circular motion: Motion in a circle at constant speed. Although speed is constant, velocity changes due to changing direction, resulting in centripetal acceleration.
匀速圆周运动：以恒定速率沿圆周的运动。虽然速率不变，但由于方向不断改变，速度在变化，从而产生向心加速度。
Centripetal acceleration: The acceleration directed toward the center of the circle. a꜀ = v²/r. It is perpendicular to velocity and changes direction without changing speed.
向心加速度：指向圆心的加速度。a꜀ = v²/r。它始终与速度垂直，只改变方向而不改变速率。
Centripetal force: The net force required to keep an object moving in a circular path. F꜀ = mv²/r. It is not a new type of force but the resultant of real forces (tension, gravity, friction).
向心力：维持物体做圆周运动所需的合力。F꜀ = mv²/r。它不是一种新型力，而是真实力（张力、重力、摩擦力）的合力。
Newton’s law of universal gravitation: Every mass attracts every other mass with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance: F = G m₁m₂ / r².
万有引力定律：任何两个物体之间都存在引力，其大小与两物体质量的乘积成正比，与它们距离的平方成反比：F = G m₁m₂ / r²。
Gravitational field strength: The force per unit mass experienced by a small test mass placed in the field. Near Earth’s surface, g = 9.8 N/kg = 9.8 m/s².
重力场强度：放置在重力场中的小检验质量每单位质量所受的力。地球表面附近 g = 9.8 N/kg = 9.8 m/s²。
Orbital velocity: The speed required for a satellite to maintain a stable circular orbit. v = √(GM/r), derived by equating centripetal force to gravitational force.
轨道速度：卫星维持稳定圆轨道所需的速度。v = √(GM/r)，由向心力等于万有引力推导得出。
7. Electricity and Magnetism | 电学与磁学
Electric charge: A fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an electric field. Charge is quantized in multiples of the elementary charge e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.
电荷：物质的基本属性，使其在电场中受到力的作用。电荷是量子化的，是基本电荷 e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C 的整数倍。
Coulomb’s law: The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance: F = k q₁q₂ / r².
库仑定律：两点电荷之间的作用力与它们的电荷量乘积成正比，与它们之间距离的平方成反比：F = k q₁q₂ / r²。
Electric field: A region around a charged object where a force is exerted on other charges. Field strength E = F/q, and the field lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges.
电场：带电物体周围对其他电荷施加力的空间区域。电场强度 E = F/q，电场线从正电荷发出，指向负电荷。
Potential difference (voltage): The work done per unit charge to move a charge between two points. V = W/q. It is measured in volts (V).
电势差（电压）：将单位电荷从一点移动到另一点所做的功。V = W/q，单位为伏特 (V)。
Current: The rate of flow of electric charge. I = Q / t. Conventional current flows from positive to negative terminal. It is measured in amperes (A).
电流：电荷的流动速率。I = Q / t。约定电流方向从正极流向负极。电流的单位是安培 (A)。
Resistance: A material’s opposition to the flow of electric current. R = V / I, according to Ohm’s law for ohmic materials. Resistance depends on length, area, and resistivity: R = ρL/A.
电阻：材料对电流流动的阻碍作用。根据欧姆定律，对欧姆材料有 R = V / I。电阻取决于长度、横截面积和电阻率：R = ρL/A。
Magnetic field: A field produced by moving charges or magnetic materials, which exerts a force on moving charges. The Lorentz force on a moving charge is F = qvB sinθ.
磁场：由运动电荷或磁性材料产生的场，对运动电荷施加力。运动电荷受到的洛伦兹力为 F = qvB sinθ。
Electromagnetic induction: The production of an electromotive force (emf) across a conductor when it experiences a changing magnetic flux. Faraday’s law: emf = –N ΔΦ / Δt.
电磁感应：当导体处于变化的磁通量中时，其两端产生电动势 (emf) 的现象。法拉第定律：emf = –N ΔΦ / Δt。
8. Waves and Optics | 波与光学
Wave: A disturbance that transfers energy from one place to another without transferring matter. Mechanical waves require a medium; electromagnetic waves do not.
波：将能量从一个地方传递到另一个地方的扰动，并不传递物质。机械波需要介质，电磁波不需要。
Frequency and period: Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per second, measured in hertz (Hz). Period (T) is the time for one full cycle: T = 1/f.
频率与周期：频率 (f) 是每秒完成的完整循环数，单位为赫兹 (Hz)。周期 (T) 是完成一个完整循环所需的时间：T = 1/f。
Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive corresponding points on a wave, such as crest to crest or trough to trough. λ = v/f.
波长：波上两个相邻对应点之间的距离，例如波峰到波峰或波谷到波谷。λ = v/f。
Reflection: The bouncing back of a wave when it hits a boundary. The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
反射：波遇到界面时反弹回来的现象。反射定律表明入射角等于反射角。
Refraction: The bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another due to a change in speed. Snell’s law: n₁ sinθ₁ = n₂ sinθ₂.
折射：波从一种介质进入另一种介质时由于速度变化而发生弯曲的现象。斯涅尔定律：n₁ sinθ₁ = n₂ sinθ₂。
Diffraction: The spreading out of waves when they pass through an opening or around an obstacle. Significant diffraction occurs when the opening size is comparable to the wavelength.
衍射：波穿过小孔或绕过障碍物时发生扩散的现象。当小孔尺寸与波长相近时，衍射现象显著。
Interference: The superposition of two or more waves to produce a resultant wave. Constructive interference occurs when waves are in phase; destructive interference occurs when they are out of phase.
干涉：两个或多个波叠加产生合波的现象。当波同相时发生相长干涉，反相时发生相消干涉。
Doppler effect: The change in observed frequency of a wave due to relative motion between source and observer. The frequency increases when the source moves toward the observer.
多普勒效应：由于波源和观察者之间的相对运动，观测到的频率发生变化。波源朝观察者运动时，频率升高。
9. Thermodynamics | 热学
Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance. It is commonly measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or kelvins (K). T(K) = T(°C) + 273.
温度：物质中粒子平均动能的量度。常用单位为摄氏度 (°C) 或开尔文 (K)。T(K) = T(°C) + 273。
Heat: The transfer of thermal energy between substances due to a temperature difference. Heat flows spontaneously from hotter to cooler objects.
热量：由于温差而在物质间传递的热能。热量自发地从高温物体传向低温物体。
Specific heat capacity: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K (or 1 °C). Q = mcΔT, where c is the specific heat capacity.
比热容：使 1 kg 物质温度升高 1 K（或 1 °C）所需的热量。Q = mcΔT，其中 c 是比热容。
Latent heat: The heat absorbed or released during a phase change at constant temperature. L = Q/m. Latent heat of fusion (melting) and vaporization (boiling).
潜热：在恒温下相变过程中吸收或释放的热量。L = Q/m。包括熔化潜热和汽化潜热。
First law of thermodynamics: The change in internal energy of a system equals the heat added to the system minus the work done by the system: ΔU = Q – W. This is a statement of energy conservation.
热力学第一定律：系统内能的变化等于加入系统的热量减去系统对外做的功：ΔU = Q – W。这是能量守恒的表述。
Entropy: A measure of the disorder or randomness of a system. The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system never decreases.
熵：系统无序性或随机性的量度。热力学第二定律指出孤立系统的总熵永远不会减少。
10. Modern Physics | 现代物理
Photon: A quantum of electromagnetic radiation. The energy of a photon is E = hf, where h is Planck’s constant. Photons have no rest mass and travel at the speed of light c.
光子：电磁辐射的量子。光子能量为 E = hf，其中 h 是普朗克常数。光子没有静止质量，以光速 c 传播。
Photoelectric effect: The emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of sufficient frequency shines on it. The maximum kinetic energy is Kₘₐₓ = hf – φ, where φ is the work function.
光电效应：当足够频率的光照射金属表面时，电子从表面逸出的现象。最大动能为 Kₘₐₓ = hf – φ，
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