📚 Core Knowledge Points of Year 7 CIE Psychology | Year 7 CIE 心理学核心知识点梳理
This revision guide covers the essential topics in Year 7 CIE Psychology. It is designed to help you understand the scientific study of mind and behaviour, from how we perceive the world to why we follow social rules. Each section presents key concepts with clear explanations in both English and Chinese, making it easier to review for assessments and build a strong foundation for further study.
这份复习指南涵盖了 Year 7 CIE 心理学的核心主题。它旨在帮助你理解对心智与行为的科学研究，从我们如何感知世界到我们为何遵守社会规则。每个部分都以中英双语提供清晰的解释，方便你备考评估，并为将来的学习打下坚实基础。
1. What is Psychology? | 什么是心理学？
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of mind and behaviour. The word comes from the Greek ‘psyche’ (mind or soul) and ‘logos’ (study). Unlike philosophy, which relies on reasoning, psychology uses systematic observation and experiments to gather evidence about how people think, feel, and act.
心理学被定义为对心智和行为的科学研究。这个词来源于希腊语 ‘psyche’（心灵或灵魂）和 ‘logos’（研究）。与依赖推理的哲学不同，心理学运用系统观察和实验来收集人们如何思考、感受和行动的证据。
Psychologists study both observable behaviours, such as talking and walking, and internal mental processes, such as remembering and problem-solving. The goal is to describe, explain, predict, and sometimes change behaviour. This scientific approach helps us base conclusions on data rather than on common sense or personal opinions.
心理学家研究可观察的行为，如说话和走路，也研究内部心理过程，如记忆和解决问题。其目标是描述、解释、预测，有时改变行为。这种科学方法帮助我们将结论建立在数据上，而非常识或个人观点上。
2. Research Methods in Psychology | 心理学研究方法
To investigate behaviour, psychologists use several key methods. An experiment involves manipulating one variable (the independent variable) to observe its effect on another (the dependent variable), while keeping other conditions constant. For example, a researcher might test whether background music affects students’ concentration by changing the type of music and measuring test scores.
为了研究行为，心理学家使用几种关键方法。实验涉及操纵一个变量（自变量）来观察它对另一个变量（因变量）的影响，同时保持其他条件不变。例如，研究者可能通过改变背景音乐的类型并测量测验分数，来测试背景音乐是否影响学生的注意力。
Other methods include naturalistic observation, where behaviour is watched in real-life settings without interference; surveys, which collect self-reported data from many people through questionnaires or interviews; and case studies, which examine a single individual or small group in great depth. Each method has strengths and weaknesses concerning control, realism, and the ability to draw causal conclusions.
其他方法包括自然观察，即在真实生活场景中不干涉地观察行为；调查法，通过问卷或访谈从大量人群中收集自述数据；以及个案研究，对单个个体或小群体进行深入考察。每种方法在控制程度、真实性和得出因果结论的能力方面各有优劣。
3. Sensation and Perception | 感觉与知觉
Sensation refers to the process by which our sensory organs (eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue) detect physical energy from the environment and convert it into neural signals. Perception is the brain’s active process of selecting, organising, and interpreting these sensations, giving them meaning. Sensation provides the raw data; perception builds a meaningful picture.
感觉是指我们的感觉器官（眼、耳、皮肤、鼻、舌）探测环境中的物理能量并将其转化为神经信号的过程。知觉是大脑主动选择、组织和解释这些感觉，赋予它们意义的过程。感觉提供原始数据；知觉构建有意义的图像。
A powerful illustration of the difference is visual illusions. In the Muller-Lyer illusion, two lines of equal length appear different because of the arrowheads at their ends. Your sensation correctly registers the line lengths, but your perception misinterprets them due to learned cues about depth and corners. This shows that perception is not always a perfect copy of reality.
视觉错觉有力地说明了这种区别。在缪勒-莱尔错觉中，两条等长的线段因为两端箭头方向不同而显得长度不一。你的感觉正确地记录了线段长度，但你的知觉因为习得的关于深度和拐角的线索而错误解释了它们。这表明知觉并不总是现实的完美复本。
4. Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval | 记忆：编码、储存与提取
Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and later retrieve information. Encoding is how information enters our memory system; storage is its retention over time; and retrieval is the act of getting it back out when needed. These three stages are essential for learning and everyday functioning.
记忆是我们编码、储存和随后提取信息的过程。编码是信息进入记忆系统的方式；储存是信息随时间的保持；提取是在需要时将其取出的行为。这三个阶段对学习和日常活动至关重要。
The multi-store model describes memory as having three main stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory memory holds very brief impressions (about half a second for visual information). STM can hold around 7 items for up to 30 seconds unless rehearsed. Through rehearsal, information can be transferred to LTM, which has a vast capacity and can store memories for a lifetime.
多储存模型将记忆描述为三个主要仓库：感觉记忆、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。感觉记忆保留极短暂的印象（视觉信息约半秒）。STM 在未复述时可容纳约 7 个项目，持续约 30 秒。通过复述，信息可以被转移到 LTM，它具有巨大容量，可以储存终生的记忆。
| Store | Capacity | Duration |
| Sensory memory | Very large | 0.5 – 2 seconds |
| Short-term memory | 7 ± 2 items | Up to 30 seconds |
| Long-term memory | Unlimited | Potentially permanent |
5. Learning: Classical Conditioning | 学习：经典条件作用
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience. One fundamental type is classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov. In his famous experiment, Pavlov noticed that dogs would salivate not only when food was placed in their mouths but also at the sight of the lab assistant who fed them. He investigated this by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food).
学习是由于经验而产生的相对持久的行为变化。一种基本类型是伊万·巴甫洛夫发现的经典条件作用。在他著名的实验中，巴甫洛夫注意到狗不仅在食物放入口中时会分泌唾液，看到喂食的实验员也会流口水。他通过将一个中性刺激（铃声）与无条件刺激（食物）配对来研究这一现象。
Initially, the bell (neutral stimulus) produced no salivation. The food (unconditioned stimulus) naturally triggered salivation (unconditioned response). After repeated pairings of the bell followed by food, the bell alone began to cause salivation. The bell became a conditioned stimulus, and the salivation it produced was now a conditioned response. Classical conditioning explains many learned emotional responses, such as fears triggered by previously neutral objects.
起初，铃声（中性刺激）不会引起唾液分泌。食物（无条件刺激）自然引发唾液分泌（无条件反应）。在铃声与食物多次配对后，单是铃声就开始引起唾液分泌。铃声成了条件刺激，而它引起的唾液分泌成了条件反应。经典条件作用解释了许多习得的情绪反应，比如由先前的中性物体引发的恐惧。
6. Learning: Operant Conditioning | 学习：操作性条件作用
Operant conditioning, proposed by B.F. Skinner, is learning through the consequences of our actions. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by reinforcement (which increases a behaviour) and punishment (which decreases a behaviour). Skinner used a Skinner box to study rats and pigeons, showing how they learned to press a lever for a food reward.
操作性条件作用由 B.F. 斯金纳提出，是通过行为后果进行的学习。行为通过强化（增加行为）和惩罚（减少行为）来塑造和维持。斯金纳使用斯金纳箱研究老鼠和鸽子，展示它们如何学会按压杠杆以获取食物奖励。
Reinforcement can be positive, where something pleasant is added (e.g., giving a star for good work), or negative, where something unpleasant is removed (e.g., taking painkillers to remove a headache). Punishment either adds something unpleasant (positive punishment, such as a scolding) or removes something pleasant (negative punishment, such as losing screen time). Understanding these principles helps explain everyday behaviour, from training pets to classroom management.
强化可以是正强化，即加入令人愉悦的事物（例如，因表现好而给一颗星），也可以是负强化，即移除了令人不快的事物（例如，服用止痛药消除头痛）。惩罚要么加入不愉快的事物（正惩罚，如责骂），要么移除愉快的事物（负惩罚，如失去屏幕时间）。理解这些原则有助于解释从训练宠物到课堂管理的日常行为。
7. Social Influence: Conformity | 社会影响：从众
Social influence looks at how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are affected by others. Conformity is a type of social influence where an individual changes their behaviour or beliefs to match those of a group. This often happens even when the group is clearly wrong, driven by the desire to fit in or because we believe the group knows better.
社会影响研究我们的思想、情感和行为如何受到他人的影响。从众是一种社会影响，指个体改变自己的行为或信念以与群体一致。即使群体明显错了，这种情况也常常发生，驱动力是想融入群体，或是我们相信群体更了解情况。
Solomon Asch’s classic experiment (1951) demonstrated conformity. Participants were asked to judge line lengths in a group where confederates purposely gave the same wrong answer. About 75% of participants conformed at least once, giving an answer they knew was incorrect. Factors increasing conformity include group size (up to a point), unanimity of the group, and the difficulty of the task.
所罗门·阿希的经典实验（1951）验证了从众现象。参与者被要求在一组人中判断线段长度，同谋者故意给出相同的错误答案。约 75% 的参与者至少从众一次，给出了他们明知错误的答案。增加从众的因素包括群体规模（到一定程度为止）、群体一致性以及任务难度。
8. Social Influence: Obedience | 社会影响：服从
Obedience is a form of social influence where a person follows direct orders from an authority figure. Stanley Milgram (1963) conducted a controversial experiment investigating how far people would go in obeying an instruction that involved harming another person. Participants were told to administer electric shocks to a ‘learner’ for each wrong answer, with the shocks increasing in voltage.
服从是社会影响的一种形式，指一个人听从权威人物的直接命令。斯坦利·米尔格拉姆（1963）进行了一项有争议的实验，探究人们在服从伤害他人的指令上会走多远。参与者被告知要对 ‘学习者’ 每次出错施加电击，且电压不断升高。
Shockingly, 65% of participants continued to the maximum 450-volt shock, despite hearing screams and protests from the learner (who was an actor and not actually shocked). Milgram found that obedience was influenced by the proximity and legitimacy of the authority figure, the proximity of the victim, and whether others disobeyed. This study raised profound ethical questions about psychological research.
令人震惊的是，65% 的参与者一直施加到最大 450 伏电击，尽管听到了学习者（其实是演员，并未真的被电）的尖叫和抗议。米尔格拉姆发现，服从受到权威人物的接近程度与合法性、受害者的接近程度以及是否有其他人不服从的影响。这项研究引发了有关心理学研究的深刻伦理问题。
9. Brain and Behaviour | 大脑与行为
All behaviour has a biological basis rooted in the brain and nervous system. The brain is divided into two hemispheres (left and right) connected by the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. Different cortical lobes specialise in different functions: the frontal lobe handles reasoning and movement, the parietal lobe processes touch, the occipital lobe deals with vision, and the temporal lobe is involved in hearing and memory.
所有行为都有植根于大脑和神经系统的生物学基础。大脑分为两个半球（左右），由胼胝体连接。每个半球控制对侧身体。不同的皮质叶负责不同功能：额叶处理推理和运动，顶叶处理触觉，枕叶负责视觉，颞叶参与听觉和记忆。
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. They communicate using electrical impulses and chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Key neurotransmitters include serotonin, which affects mood and sleep, and dopamine, which is linked to reward and pleasure. Damage to specific brain areas can lead to predictable changes in behaviour, demonstrating the close link between brain structures and psychological functions.
神经元是神经系统的构建单元。它们通过电冲动和称为神经递质的化学信使进行交流。关键神经递质包括影响情绪和睡眠的血清素，以及与奖励和快感相关的多巴胺。特定脑区的损伤会导致可预测的行为变化，这证明了大脑结构与心理功能之间的紧密联系。
10. Ethical Issues in Psychological Research | 心理学研究中的伦理问题
Ethics refers to the moral principles that guide researchers to protect participants’ rights and well-being. Because psychological studies often involve humans or animals, ethics committees review research proposals to ensure they meet standards. Key ethical principles include informed consent, the right to withdraw, confidentiality, protection from harm, and debriefing after the study.
伦理是指保护参与者权利和福祉的道德准则。由于心理学研究常常涉及人类或动物，伦理委员会会审查研究计划以确保符合标准。关键的伦理原则包括知情同意、退出权、保密、避免伤害以及研究后的事后说明。
Milgram’s obedience study, for example, is often criticised because participants were deceived about the true purpose and subjected to extreme stress. Modern guidelines require that deception be avoided where possible, and if used, it must be justified and followed by a thorough debriefing. Understanding ethics helps students evaluate classic studies critically and design responsible investigations.
例如，米尔格拉姆的服从研究经常受到批评，因为参与者被欺骗了真实目的，并承受了极大压力。现代准则要求尽可能避免欺骗，如果必须使用，应当有合理理由，并在事后进行彻底的情况说明。理解伦理有助于学生批判性地评价经典研究，并设计负责任的研究调查。
11. Development: Nature vs. Nurture | 发展：先天与后天
A central debate in psychology is the nature versus nurture question: to what extent are we shaped by our biology (nature) or by our environment and experiences (nurture)? Nature refers to genetic inheritance and innate biological factors, while nurture covers upbringing, education, culture, and social learning.
心理学的一个核心争论是先天与后天的问题：我们在多大程度上是由我们的生物学（先天）塑造的，还是由我们的环境和经验（后天）塑造的？先天指遗传基因和先天的生物因素，后天则涵盖养育、教育、文化和社会学习。
Most psychologists now agree that behaviour is a product of the interaction between nature and nurture. For instance, intelligence is influenced by genetic potential, but that potential can be enhanced or hindered by nutrition, schooling, and mental stimulation. Similarly, temperament may be partly inborn, yet parenting styles can shape how it is expressed. Recognising this interaction is crucial for understanding the complexity of human behaviour.
现在大多数心理学家同意，行为是先天与后天相互作用的产物。例如，智力受遗传潜力的影响，但这种潜力可能被营养、教育和心智刺激增强或阻碍。同样，气质可能部分是天生的，但教养方式可以塑造其表达方式。认识到这种相互作用对于理解人类行为的复杂性至关重要。
12. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life | 心理学在日常生活中的应用
Psychology is not just a school subject; it has powerful real-world applications. Understanding memory can help you develop better revision techniques, such as using spaced practice and elaboration. Knowledge of classical conditioning explains why a certain smell might trigger a vivid childhood memory, or why we develop food aversions after illness.
心理学不只是一门学校科目；它有着强大的现实应用。理解记忆可以帮助你制定更好的复习技巧，比如使用间隔练习和精细加工。经典条件作用的知识解释了为什么某种气味会触发一段生动的童年记忆，或者为什么我们生病后会对某种食物产生厌恶。
Insights from social influence research make us more aware of peer pressure and the power of authority. Learning about operant conditioning can help you encourage positive habits by rewarding yourself for small successes. By connecting psychological principles to daily experiences, you become a more reflective and self-aware individual, which is one of the most valuable outcomes of studying psychology at an early stage.
从社会影响研究获得的洞见让我们更清楚地意识到同伴压力和权威的力量。学习操作性条件作用可以帮助你通过奖励自己的小成功来鼓励积极习惯。通过将心理学原理与日常经验联系起来，你会成为一个更具反思性和自我意识的人，这是早期阶段学习心理学最宝贵的成果之一。
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