📚 Legal Principles Quick Reference Handbook | 法律公式定理速查手册
This guide is not about mathematical formulas — it is a collection of the most essential legal principles, rules, and maxims that every Year 7 CIE Law student must know. Think of each entry as a “formula” for solving legal problems: a clear statement that helps you analyse a situation, apply the law, and reach a logical conclusion. Use this handbook to review core concepts quickly before tests and exams.
本手册并非数学公式合集，而是每一位七年级 CIE 法律学生必须掌握的最基本的法律原则、规则与格言汇编。你可以把每一条原则看作解决法律问题的“公式”：它是一个清晰的表述，有助于分析情境、适用法律并得出合理结论。请在考试前使用本手册快速回顾核心概念。
1. The Rule of Law | 法治原则
No one is above the law. All individuals, government officials, and institutions are equally subject to the same legal rules. This principle ensures fairness, prevents arbitrary power, and protects citizens from tyranny.
法律面前人人平等。所有个人、政府官员和机构都须平等地遵守相同的法律规则。这一原则确保公平、防止专断权力并保障公民免受暴政侵害。
2. Presumption of Innocence | 无罪推定
Every person accused of a crime is considered innocent until proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt. The burden of proof rests on the prosecution, not the defence. This is a fundamental right in criminal trials.
任何被指控犯罪的人，在被证实有罪并排除合理怀疑之前，应推定为无罪。举证责任由控方承担，而非被告方。这是刑事审判中的一项基本权利。
3. Burden of Proof | 举证责任
In criminal cases, the prosecution must prove every element of the offence to the standard of ‘beyond reasonable doubt’. In civil cases, the claimant must prove their case ‘on the balance of probabilities’. The party who makes an assertion carries the burden.
在刑事案件中，控方必须将犯罪的每一构成要素证明到“排除合理怀疑”的程度。在民事案件中，原告须以“盖然性权衡”标准证明其主张。谁主张，谁举证。
4. Actus Reus and Mens Rea | 犯罪行为与犯罪意图
For most crimes, two elements must be present: actus reus (the guilty act) and mens rea (the guilty mind). Actus reus is the physical action or omission; mens rea is the intention, recklessness, or knowledge of wrongdoing. Without both, criminal liability generally cannot be established.
对大多数犯罪而言，必须同时具备两个要素：犯罪行为（actus reus）和犯罪意图（mens rea）。犯罪行为指身体动作或不作为；犯罪意图指故意、轻率或对不法行为的明知。若两者缺一，通常无法构成刑事责任。
5. Causation | 因果关系
In both criminal and tort law, the prosecution or claimant must prove a clear link between the defendant’s action and the harm caused. The ‘but for’ test asks: but for the defendant’s conduct, would the harm have occurred? If the answer is no, factual causation is established. Legal causation requires that the damage was a foreseeable consequence.
在刑法与侵权法中，控方或原告必须证明被告行为与所造成的损害之间存在明确联系。“若无法则”检验问道：若非被告的行为，损害是否仍会发生？若否，则事实因果关系成立。法律因果要求损害是可预见的后果。
6. Strict Liability | 严格责任
Some offences require no proof of mens rea — only actus reus is needed. These are strict liability offences, often created by statute for matters of social concern such as selling alcohol to minors or food safety violations. The focus is on the prohibited act, not the defendant’s state of mind.
某些罪行无需证明犯罪意图，仅凭犯罪行为即可定罪。这类严格责任罪行通常由制定法设立，涉及售卖酒类给未成年人、食品安全违规等社会关切事项。重点在于禁止性行为本身，而非被告的主观状态。
7. The Doctrine of Precedent (Stare Decisis) | 先例原则（遵循先例）
Courts follow the decisions of higher courts in previous similar cases. This guarantees consistency and predictability in the law. The ratio decidendi — the legal reasoning behind the decision — is binding on lower courts, while obiter dicta — comments made in passing — are persuasive only.
法院遵循上级法院在以往类似案件中的判决。这保证了法律的一致性与可预测性。判决理由（ratio decidendi）——即判决背后的法律推理——对下级法院具有约束力；而附带意见（obiter dicta）——即判决中的附带评论——仅具说服力。
8. Sources of Law: Statute and Common Law | 法律渊源：制定法与普通法
Statute law is created by Parliament and takes precedence over common law. Common law is developed by judges through decisions in individual cases. Together they form the backbone of the English legal system. Statutes can codify, modify, or abolish common law rules.
制定法由议会制定，效力高于普通法。普通法由法官通过个案判决发展而来。两者共同构成英格兰法律体系的支柱。制定法可将普通法规则编撰、修改或废除。
9. Separation of Powers | 权力分立
State power is divided among three branches: the legislature (makes law), the executive (implements law), and the judiciary (interprets law). This separation prevents concentration of power and protects individual liberties by providing checks and balances.
国家权力分属三个部门：立法机关（制定法律）、行政机关（执行法律）和司法机关（解释法律）。这种分立防止权力集中，通过制衡保障个人自由。
10. Basic Principles of Contract Law | 合同法的基本原则
A legally binding contract requires offer, acceptance, consideration, intention to create legal relations, and capacity. Consideration is something of value exchanged between the parties. Without these essential elements, no enforceable contract exists.
一份具有法律约束力的合同需具备要约、承诺、对价、建立法律关系的意图以及行为能力。对价是当事人之间交换的有价值之物。若缺乏这些基本要素，则不存在可强制执行的合同。
11. Negligence: Duty, Breach, Damage | 过失侵权：义务、违反、损害
To succeed in a negligence claim, a claimant must establish three things: the defendant owed them a duty of care; that duty was breached by failing to meet the expected standard; and the breach caused reasonably foreseeable damage. The standard is that of the reasonable person.
过失侵权索赔要获得成功，原告须证明三点：被告对其负有注意义务；被告未达到预期标准而违反了该义务；以及该违反行为造成了合理可预见的损害。判断标准为理性人的标准。
12. The Principle of Equal Access to Justice | 平等诉诸司法原则
Everyone should have fair access to courts and legal remedies regardless of wealth or status. The legal system provides mechanisms like legal aid and simplified procedures to reduce barriers, ensuring that rights can be effectively enforced in practice.
不论财富或地位，人人都应拥有诉诸法院和获得法律救济的公平机会。法律体系通过提供法律援助和简化程序等机制降低障碍，确保权利在实践中得以有效实现。
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