📚 Sociology Vocabulary Quick-Study Guide | 社会学词汇速记指南
Welcome to your essential SQA Year 7 Sociology vocabulary guide. This resource breaks down key terms into bite-sized, memorable definitions, with a clear English–Chinese pairing so you can quickly build confidence. Each section focuses on a theme you will encounter in your Scottish sociology studies, helping you speak and write like a budding social scientist.
欢迎使用这份 SQA 七年级社会学必备词汇指南。我们将核心术语拆解成易于记忆的短定义，并以清晰的英中配对呈现，帮助你快速建立自信。每个主题都聚焦你在苏格兰社会学课程中会遇到的领域，让你能像初露头角的社会科学家一样表达与写作。
1. Society and Culture | 社会与文化
Society is a structured group of people who share a defined area and a common culture. When we study society, we look at the shared ways of life that bind people together.
社会是由一群共享特定地域和共同文化的人组成的有结构的群体。研究社会时，我们观察的是将人们联结在一起的共享生活方式。
Society: A community of individuals living in the same territory, interacting through shared institutions and culture. (Tip: think ‘society’ – sharing a ‘city’.)
社会：生活在同一片土地上、通过共享制度与文化互动的个体组成的社群。（记忆提示：’society’ 联想到 ‘city’——共享一个“城市”。）
Culture: The whole way of life of a society, including language, norms, values, beliefs, customs and material objects.
文化：一个社会全部的生活方式，包括语言、规范、价值观、信仰、习俗和物质对象。
Subculture: A group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms and values, such as youth subcultures or professional groups.
亚文化：较大文化内部的一群人，拥有自己鲜明的规范和价值观，例如青年亚文化或专业群体。
Cultural diversity: The coexistence of many different cultural traditions and backgrounds within one society.
文化多样性：在一个社会内部多种不同文化传统和背景共存的现象。
2. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Socialisation explains how we learn the rules of our society, while identity is about who we think we are. Together they shape our place in the social world.
社会化解释了我们如何学习社会规则，而身份认同关乎我们如何看待自己。它们共同塑造了我们在社会世界中的位置。
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalise the norms, values and behaviours needed to participate in society.
社会化：个体终生学习和内化参与社会所需的规范、价值观和行为的过程。
Primary socialisation: Learning that takes place in early childhood, mainly within the family, where basic language, norms and emotional bonds are formed.
初级社会化：儿童早期发生的学习，主要在家庭中进行，形成基本的语言、规范和情感纽带。
Secondary socialisation: Learning that occurs later through schools, peer groups, mass media and workplaces, helping us move beyond the family.
次级社会化：后来通过学校、同伴群体、大众传媒和工作场所等进行的学习，帮助我们走向家庭之外。
Identity: An individual’s sense of self, built through personal characteristics and social group memberships. Social identity includes categories such as nationality, ethnicity, gender and class.
身份认同：个体对自我的感知，由个人特征和社会群体成员身份共同构建。社会认同包括国籍、族群、性别和阶层等类别。
3. Norms, Values and Beliefs | 规范、价值观与信仰
Every society operates on a set of invisible rules. Norms, values and beliefs are the glue that holds social life together and guides our everyday behaviour.
每个社会都依靠一套看不见的规则运行。规范、价值观和信仰是维系社会生活的粘合剂，并指引着我们的日常行为。
Norms: Unwritten but socially understood rules of behaviour. They tell us what is considered normal or acceptable in a given situation.
规范：不成文但被社会理解的行为规则。它们告诉我们，在特定情境中，什么被视为正常或可接受。
Values: Broad principles or standards that society regards as important and desirable, such as honesty, freedom or respect.
价值观：社会认为重要且值得追求的基本原则或标准，例如诚实、自由或尊重。
Beliefs: Specific ideas or convictions that people hold to be true, which may be based on religion, science or tradition.
信仰：人们持有的具体观念或坚定看法，可能基于宗教、科学或传统。
Mores: Strongly held norms that carry moral significance; violations often provoke serious disapproval (e.g. taboos around theft).
民德：具有道德分量的强效规范；违反通常会引发严重的负面评价（例如关于偷窃的禁忌）。
Folkways: Everyday customs and conventions of routine behaviour, such as saying “please” and “thank you”. Breaking folkways may be seen as odd but not immoral.
民俗：日常生活中的习俗和惯例行为，如说“请”和“谢谢”。打破民俗可能被认为古怪，但通常不被视为不道德。
4. Roles and Status | 角色与地位
Roles and status shape how we behave and how others see us. In sociology, they help us understand social positions and the expectations attached to them.
角色与地位塑造了我们的行为方式，也影响着他人如何看待我们。在社会学中，它们帮助我们理解社会位置及其带来的期待。
Status: A recognised social position that a person occupies within a group or society. It can be high or low and often comes with a set of expectations.
地位：一个人在群体或社会中所占据的为他人认可的社会位置。地位有高低之分，通常伴随着一系列期待。
Ascribed status: A status given at birth or involuntarily later in life, such as sex, age, or being born into a royal family. You have little control over it.
先赋地位：出生时获得或后来非自愿取得的地位，例如性别、年龄或出生于皇室。你几乎无法控制。
Achieved status: A status earned or chosen through personal effort, such as becoming a doctor, athlete or student.
自致地位：通过个人努力赢得或主动选择的地位，例如成为医生、运动员或学生。
Role: The expected pattern of behaviour attached to a particular status. One status, like ‘student’, has many roles – attending class, studying, completing homework.
角色：附着于某个特定地位的预期行为模式。一个地位如“学生”，就对应许多角色——上课、学习、完成作业。
Role conflict: When the demands of different roles, from two or more statuses, clash. For example, being both a parent and an employee can create tension between family and work duties.
角色冲突：当来自两个或更多地位的不同角色要求发生冲突时。例如，同时为人父母和雇员，可能引发家庭与工作责任之间的紧张。
5. Social Stratification: Class | 社会分层：阶级
Societies are rarely completely equal. Stratification describes the way people are ranked, and class remains a key concept for understanding inequality.
社会很少完全平等。分层描述的是人们被排序的方式，而阶级仍然是理解不平等的一个核心概念。
Social stratification: A hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in a society based on factors like wealth, income, occupation, education and power.
社会分层：基于财富、收入、职业、教育和权力等因素，对个人和群体进行的社会等级排列。
Social class: A group of people who share a similar economic position in society, often identified through occupation, income and lifestyle.
社会阶级：一群在经济地位上相似的人，通常通过职业、收入及生活方式加以识别。
Life chances: The opportunities each person has to improve their quality of life, including access to education, healthcare and decent housing.
生活机会：每个人提升生活质量的机会，包括获得教育、医疗保健和体面住房的可能。
Social mobility: Movement of individuals or groups up or down the social hierarchy. Upward mobility might mean moving from a working-class background into a professional career.
社会流动：个人或群体在社会等级中的上下移动。向上流动可能意味着从工人阶级背景进入专业职业。
Relative poverty: A condition where a person lacks the resources to maintain the standard of living that is customary in their society. It differs from absolute poverty, which is a lack of basic survival needs.
相对贫困：一个人缺乏维持其所在社会惯常生活标准的资源。不同于缺乏基本生存所需的绝对贫困。
6. Ethnicity and Race | 族群与种族
Sociology carefully distinguishes between ethnicity and race. Both are powerful social categories that can shape identity and experiences of inequality.
社会学谨慎地区分族群与种族。两者都是强大的社会类别，可以塑造身份认同和不平等的经历。
Ethnicity: A shared cultural identity based on common heritage, language, religion, traditions and ancestry. It is learned, not biological.
族群：基于共同的文化传承、语言、宗教、传统和世系形成的共享文化认同。它是习得的，而非生物学决定的。
Race: A socially constructed category used to classify people by physical characteristics such as skin colour. Sociologists see race as having social meanings rather than biological validity.
种族：一种社会建构的分类方式，用于按肤色等身体特征将人分组。社会学家认为种族更多是社会的意义建构，而非生物学事实。
Discrimination: Action or behaviour that treats people unfairly because of their membership in a particular group, such as an ethnic or racial group.
歧视：基于某人属于特定群体（如某个族群或种族）而对其采取不公平对待的行动或行为。
Prejudice: A preconceived, often negative, opinion or attitude about a group and its members, not based on actual experience or reason.
偏见：一种先入为主的、通常是负面的意见或态度，并非基于实际经验或理性思考。
Institutional racism: Patterns of discrimination that are built into the normal operations of institutions such as schools, police or healthcare, often unintentionally.
制度性种族主义：嵌入在学校、警察或医疗等机构日常运作中的歧视模式，常常是无意间形成的。
7. Gender and Sexuality | 性别与性向
Sociology separates biological sex from socially constructed gender, and explores how ideas about masculinity, femininity and sexuality are created and learned.
社会学将生物性别与社会建构的性别区分开来，并探究关于男性气质、女性气质和性向的观念是如何被创造和习得的。
Sex: The biological and physiological differences between males and females, such as chromosomes, hormones and reproductive organs.
生理性别：男性和女性之间的生物学及生理学差异，如染色体、激素和生殖器官。
Gender: The socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women.
社会性别：某个社会认为适合男性和女性的社会建构的角色、行为、活动和特征。
Gender socialisation: The process through which individuals learn society’s expectations about how males and females should behave, often beginning at birth.
性别社会化：个体学习社会对男性和女性应如何表现之期待的过程，往往从出生就开始了。
Gender roles: The specific tasks, manners and attitudes expected of people based on their perceived gender, such as caring roles for women and breadwinner roles for men.
性别角色：基于人们的被认知性别而预期的具体任务、举止和态度，例如女性承担照顾角色，男性承担养家角色。
Sexuality: A person’s sexual orientation, identity and attraction, which can include heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality and asexuality. Sociologists study how sexuality is shaped by social norms.
性向：一个人的性取向、性身份和吸引力，可能包括异性恋、同性恋、双性恋和无性恋。社会学家研究性向如何被社会规范塑造。
8. Family and Household | 家庭与住户
The family is often called the first agency of socialisation, but families come in many forms. Understanding the difference between a household and a family is an important early step.
家庭常被称为社会化的第一场所，但家庭的形态多种多样。理解住户和家庭之间的区别是重要的第一步。
Family: A group of people who are related by blood, marriage, civil partnership or adoption, and who often share emotional and economic bonds.
家庭：通过血缘、婚姻、民事伴侣关系或收养相关的一群人，通常共享情感和经济纽带。
Household: One person living alone or a group of people living at the same address and sharing at least one meal a day or common living arrangements.
住户：单独居住的个人，或一群居住在同一地址且每天至少共进一餐或共享生活安排的人。
Nuclear family: A family unit consisting of two parents and their dependent children. Although often portrayed as traditional, it is not the only universal form.
核心家庭：由两位父母及其受抚养子女组成的家庭单元。虽然常被描绘为传统模式，但它并非唯一普遍的形式。
Extended family: A family that includes the nuclear family plus other relatives such as grandparents, uncles and aunts living together or in very close contact.
扩展家庭：包括核心家庭及其他亲戚（如祖父母、叔伯姑姨）共同生活或保持密切往来的家庭。
Reconstituted family: Also called a blended or stepfamily, formed when adults marry or cohabit and bring children from previous relationships into a new household.
重组家庭：也称混合家庭或继亲家庭，由成年人结婚或同居并将之前关系中的孩子带入新的住户而形成。
9. Education as an Institution | 教育作为一种制度
Education is more than just lessons. Sociologists see schools as institutions that transmit knowledge and also reproduce social norms, values and inequalities.
教育不仅仅是听课。社会学家将学校视为传递知识同时也再生产社会规范、价值观和不平等的制度。
Institution: A stable and lasting pattern of rules, norms and values that serve a specific purpose in society, such as the family, religion, education or law.
制度：一种稳定持久的规则、规范和价值观模式，在社会中发挥特定功能，例如家庭、宗教、教育或法律。
Formal curriculum: The official, planned programme of subjects and content that is taught in schools, often set by the government or exam boards.
正式课程：学校中教授的正规、有计划的科目和内容，通常由政府或考试机构设定。
Hidden curriculum: The unspoken, informal lessons about values, attitudes and behaviours that are conveyed through the school environment, routines and teacher expectations.
隐性课程：通过学校环境、日常惯例和教师期待传达的、关于价值观、态度和行为的非正式无声课程。
Meritocracy: The idea that individuals are rewarded and progress in education and work on the basis of their ability and effort. Sociologists debate how truly meritocratic schools really are.
贤能主义：认为个体根据能力和努力在教育和工作中获得奖励和进步的理念。社会学家就学校在多大程度上真正奉行贤能主义展开辩论。
Labelling: The process of attaching a definition or category to a student, such as ‘bright’ or ‘troublemaker’, which can influence self-image and future performance.
标签化：将某种定义或类别附加于学生身上的过程，如“聪明”或“捣蛋鬼”，这可能影响自我形象和未来表现。
10. Deviance and Social Control | 越轨与社会控制
No society permits everything. Deviance and crime raise questions about how order is kept and what happens when rules are broken.
没有任何社会允许一切行为。越轨与犯罪引出了如何维护秩序以及当规则被打破时会发生什么的问题。
Deviance: Any behaviour that goes against the accepted norms or expectations of a society. It is relative because what is deviant in one culture or time may be normal in another.
越轨：任何违背社会公认规范或期待的行为。它具有相对性，因为一种文化或时代中的越轨行为在另一种中可能是正常的。
Crime: A specific form of deviance that breaks formal laws enacted by the state, punishable by legal sanctions.
犯罪：一种特定的越轨形式，违反国家制定的正式法律，可受到法律制裁。
Social control: The formal and informal mechanisms used to encourage conformity and regulate behaviour. Formal control includes police and courts; informal control includes peer pressure and family discipline.
社会控制：用来鼓励遵从和规管行为的正式与非正式机制。正式控制包括警察和法院；非正式控制包括同伴压力和家庭管教。
Sanctions: Reactions to behaviour that can be positive (rewards for conformity) or negative (punishments for deviance). They help reinforce norms.
制裁：对行为的反应，可以是正向的（对遵从的奖励）或负向的（对越轨的惩罚）。它们有助于强化规范。
Anomie: A condition of normlessness or instability caused by a breakdown of standards and values. It was introduced by sociologist Emile Durkheim to explain how rapid social change can weaken social bonds.
失范：由标准和价值观崩溃所引发的规范缺失或不稳定的状态。这一概念由社会学家涂尔干提出，用以解释快速的社会变迁如何削弱社会纽带。
11. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power runs through all social relationships. Understanding the difference between power and authority helps explain why people obey, and who makes the rules.
权力贯穿在所有社会关系之中。理解权力与权威的区别有助于解释人们为何服从，以及谁来制定规则。
Power: The ability to make others do what you want, even if they resist. It can be based on force, resources or influence.
权力：使他人按照你的意愿行事的能力，即使他们抗拒。权力可以基于强制力、资源或影响力。
Authority: Legitimate power that people accept as right and appropriate. When a teacher asks students to be quiet, the teacher exercises authority, not just raw power.
权威：人们认为正当、适当的合法权力。当一位老师要求学生安静时，老师行使的是权威，而不仅是赤裸裸的权力。
Max Weber’s three types of authority: Traditional authority (based on customs, e.g. monarchy), charismatic authority (based on personal qualities of a leader) and legal-rational authority (based on formal rules and offices, e.g. a prime minister).
马克斯·韦伯的三种权威类型：传统型权威（基于习俗，如君主制）、魅力型权威（基于领导者的个人特质）和法理型权威（基于正式规则和职务，如首相）。
Democracy: A system of government in which power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. It is linked to concepts of citizenship and participation.
民主：一种权力由人民掌握的政治制度，可以直接或通过选举代表来行使。它与公民身份和参与的概念相联系。
Social influence: The many ways individuals change other people’s attitudes, beliefs or behaviours, including conformity, obedience and peer pressure.
社会影响：个体改变他人态度、信仰或行为的多种方式，包括从众、服从和同伴压力。
12. Research Methods in Sociology | 社会学研究方法
Sociologists gather evidence systematically. Getting to know key research terms early will help you understand how sociologists figure out what is really going on.
社会学家系统性地收集证据。早早熟悉关键研究术语将有助于你理解社会学家是如何弄清真相的。
Primary data: Information collected directly by the researcher for the specific purpose of their study, using methods such as questionnaires, interviews or observations.
一手数据：研究者为了其特定研究目的直接收集的信息，采用的方法如问卷、访谈或观察。
Secondary data: Information that already exists, having been collected by someone else for a different purpose, such as official statistics, historical documents or previous research.
二手数据：已经存在的信息，由他人为不同目的所收集，如官方统计数据、历史文献或过往的研究。
Quantitative data: Data in numerical form that can be measured and analysed statistically, for example percentages, charts and graphs from surveys.
量化数据：可以测量并进行统计分析的数值形式的数据，例如来自调查的百分比、图表和图形。
Qualitative data: Non-numerical data that captures in-depth thoughts, feelings and meanings, often collected through open-ended interviews or participant observation.
质性数据：捕捉深层想法、感受和意义的非数值数据，通常通过开放式访谈或参与观察收集。
Ethical issues: Moral principles that guide research, including informed consent, confidentiality, avoiding deception and protecting participants from harm. Sociological research must always respect these.
伦理议题：指导研究的道德原则，包括知情同意、保密、避免欺骗以及保护参与者免受伤害。社会学研究必须始终尊重这些原则。
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