📚 Year 7 CIE Law: Formulae & Principles Quick Reference | Year 7 CIE 法律：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your quick reference guide for Year 7 CIE Law! This handbook transforms essential legal concepts into simple ‘formulae’ and principles, helping you to memorise and apply them easily. Understanding law starts with mastering these building blocks. Use this guide to revise key ideas, test yourself, and build a solid foundation for further legal study.
欢迎使用 Year 7 CIE 法律速查手册！本手册将核心法律概念转化为简单 ‘公式’ 和原则，帮助你轻松记忆和运用。理解法律，从掌握这些基础模块开始。使用本指南复习关键概念、自我测试，为进一步的法律学习打下坚实基础。
1. What is Law? | 什么是法律？
Law is a system of rules that a country or community recognises as regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by imposing penalties. It is not merely a collection of dos and don’ts; it provides a framework for resolving disputes, protecting rights, and maintaining social order.
法律是一个国家或社会认可的规则体系，用于规范其成员的行为，并可通过施加惩罚来强制执行。它不只是一系列该做和不该做的事项；它提供了解决争议、保护权利和维护社会秩序的框架。
Think of law as the operating system of society. Without it, individuals could not rely on contracts, property would be insecure, and wrongs would go unpunished. The legal system sets standards of behaviour that everyone must follow.
可以把法律想象成社会的操作系统。没有法律，人们无法依赖合同，财产将不安全，不法行为将不受惩罚。法律制度设定了每个人都必须遵守的行为标准。
Law can be expressed as a simple working formula:
法律可以用一个简单的工作公式表达：
Law = Recognised Rules + Official Enforcement
法律 = 公认规则 + 官方强制执行
2. The Rule of Law Formula | 法治公式
The rule of law is a cornerstone of democratic societies. It means that everyone — including the government — must obey the law. No one can be punished unless they have broken a known law, and all people are entitled to a fair hearing. This principle can be expressed as a formula:
法治是民主社会的基石。它意味着每个人——包括政府——都必须遵守法律。除非违反了已知法律，否则任何人不受惩罚；所有人都有权获得公正审判。这一原则可用公式表示：
Rule of Law = Limited Government Power + Fair Legal Process + Equality Before the Law
法治 = 有限的政府权力 + 公正的法律程序 + 法律面前人人平等
This formula reminds us that governments cannot act arbitrarily; they must follow established procedures. Citizens can challenge government actions if they breach the law, and judges must apply the law equally, regardless of a person’s background or status.
这个公式提醒我们，政府不能任意行事；必须遵循既定程序。如果政府行为违法，公民可以提出挑战；法官必须平等适用法律，不论个人背景或地位如何。
For Year 7 students, the rule of law is like a referee in a football match: the referee ensures all players follow the same rules, and even the referee cannot simply invent new rules during the game.
对于 Year 7 学生而言，法治就像足球比赛中的裁判：裁判确保所有球员遵守相同的规则，甚至裁判也不能在比赛中随意发明新规则。
3. Sources of Law | 法律渊源
Where does law actually come from? In the English legal system, there are two main domestic sources, with international influences. We can summarise them in the table below, along with a simple formula for the overall structure:
法律究竟从哪里来？在英国法律体系中，主要有两大国内渊源，同时存在国际影响。我们可以通过下表总结，并给出整体结构的简单公式：
Domestic Law = Statute Law (Acts of Parliament) + Common Law (Judge-made Law)
国内法 = 成文法（议会立法） + 普通法（法官造法）
| Source (English) | 中文渊源 | Explanation | 解释 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Statute Law | 成文法 | Laws passed by Parliament (e.g., the Theft Act 1968) | 由议会通过的法律（如《1968年盗窃法》） |
| Common Law | 普通法 | Legal principles developed by judges through decisions in cases (precedents) | 法官通过案件判决发展出的法律原则（判例） |
| European Convention on Human Rights | 《欧洲人权公约》 | International treaty incorporated by the Human Rights Act 1998 | 通过《1998年人权法》引入的国际条约 |
Statutes override common law if there is a conflict. However, judges interpret statutes, so both sources work together.
当二者冲突时，成文法优先于普通法。但法官需要解释成文法，因此两者是协同作用的。
4. Criminal vs Civil Law | 刑法与民法对比
Criminal law deals with actions that harm society as a whole. Civil law resolves disputes between individuals or organisations. These two branches can be remembered through contrasting ‘formulae’ for cases:
刑法处理危害整个社会的行为。民法解决个人或组织之间的纠纷。这两个分支可以通过对比案件的 ‘公式’ 来记忆：
Criminal Case = State (Prosecutor) v. Defendant about a Crime
刑事案件 = 国家（检察官）诉被告 关于犯罪行为
Civil Case = Claimant v. Defendant about a Right or Wrong
民事案件 = 原告诉被告 关于权利或过错
The key differences are further set out in the table:
关键区别进一步列于表中：
| Feature | 特点 | Criminal | 刑事 | Civil | 民事 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Purpose | 目的 | Punish offenders and deter crime | 惩罚罪犯、威慑犯罪 | Compensate the victim for loss | 赔偿受害人的损失 |
| Parties | 当事人 | State v Defendant | 国家诉被告 | Claimant v Defendant | 原告诉被告 |
| Outcome | 结果 | Guilty or not guilty; sentence (e.g., imprisonment) | 有罪或无罪；刑罚（如监禁） | Liable or not liable; remedy (usually damages) | 担责或不担责；救济（通常为损害赔偿金） |
| Standard of Proof | 证明标准 | Beyond reasonable doubt | 排除合理怀疑 | Balance of probabilities | 盖然性权衡 |
Remember: criminal law is about blame and strict punishment; civil law is about sorting out disputes and putting the injured party back in the position they were in before the wrong occurred.
记住：刑法关乎责备和严厉惩罚；民法则关乎解决纠纷，使受害方恢复至错误发生前的状态。
5. Elements of a Crime | 犯罪构成要素
To secure a conviction in most criminal cases, the prosecution must prove two main components and overcome any valid defence. This fundamental principle can be written as a general formula for a crime:
在大多数刑事案件中，要使被告定罪，检方必须证明两个主要组成部分，并排除任何有效的抗辩事由。这一基本原则可以写成犯罪的一般公式：
Crime = Actus Reus + Mens Rea – Valid Defence
犯罪 = 犯罪行为 + 犯罪意图 – 有效抗辩
Actus Reus (pronounced ‘ak-tus ree-us’) is the guilty act — the physical element of the crime. It includes conduct, consequences, or circumstances that are prohibited. For example, in theft, the actus reus is appropriating property belonging to another without consent.
Actus Reus（发音为 ‘ak-tus ree-us’）是犯罪行为 —— 犯罪的客观要素。它包括被禁止的行为、后果或状态。例如，在盗窃罪中，犯罪行为是未经同意占有他人财产。
Mens Rea (pronounced ‘menz ree-uh’) is the guilty mind — the mental element. It refers to the defendant’s state of mind at the time of the act, such as intention, recklessness, or dishonesty. In theft, the mens rea is the intention to permanently deprive the owner of the property.
Mens Rea（发音为 ‘menz ree-uh’）是犯罪意图 —— 主观要素。它指的是被告行为时的心理状态，如故意、轻率或不诚实。在盗窃罪中，犯罪意图是永久剥夺所有者财产的故意。
A valid defence, such as self-defence, duress, or insanity, cancels out liability even if actus reus and mens rea are present. Hence the formula subtracts the defence.
即使存在犯罪行为和犯罪意图，有效的抗辩事由（如自卫、胁迫或精神失常）也会抵消责任。因此公式中减去了抗辩事由。
For strict liability crimes, no mens rea is needed — the act alone makes the defendant guilty. However, these are exceptions suitable for later study.
对于严格责任犯罪，不需要犯罪意图 —— 仅凭行为本身即可定罪。不过，这是适合后续学习的例外情况。
6. Tort Law Formula: Negligence | 侵权法公式：过失
In civil law, a ‘tort’ is a wrong that causes harm to someone, giving them the right to claim compensation. The most common tort is negligence. Its structure can be remembered through this formula:
在民法中，’侵权’ 是指对他人造成损害的过错行为，赋予受害者索赔的权利。最普遍的侵权是过失。其结构可通过以下公式记忆：
Negligence = Duty of Care + Breach of Duty + Damage Caused
过失 = 注意义务 + 违反义务 + 造成损害
First, the defendant must owe the claimant a duty of care. This is established by asking whether it was reasonably foreseeable that the defendant’s actions could harm someone in the claimant’s position. The classic ‘neighbour principle’ states that you must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour.
首先，被告必须对原告负有注意义务。这通过询问是否可以合理预见被告的行为会对处于原告位置的人造成伤害来确定。经典的 ‘邻人原则’ 指出，你必须采取合理的注意，避免你可以合理预见有可能伤害邻人的作为或不作为。
Second, the defendant must have breached that duty by failing to act as a reasonable person would in the circumstances. If a reasonable driver checks mirrors before turning, but our defendant did not, they have breached the standard of care. Third, the breach must have caused the claimant’s damage, such as physical injury or property loss, and the damage must be not too remote (foreseeable in type).
第二，被告必须因未能像一个理性人在同等情况下那样行事而违反了该义务。如果一个理性司机转弯前会检查后视镜，而我们的被告未这样做，就违反了注意标准。第三，该违反必须造成了原告的损害，如人身伤害或财产损失，且损害不能过于遥远（原则上必须可预见）。
7. Contract Law Formula | 合同法
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