📚 Year 7 SQA Sociology: Formulae and Theorems Quick Reference Handbook | Year 7 SQA 社会学：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your Year 7 SQA Sociology quick reference! This handbook brings together the most useful quantitative formulae and key theoretical insights you need to analyse social life. From calculating percentages to understanding Marx’s conflict theory, these tools will help you think like a sociologist.
欢迎阅读 Year 7 SQA 社会学速查手册！本手册汇集了你分析社会生活所必需的最有用的定量公式和关键理论见解。从计算百分比到理解马克思的冲突理论，这些工具将帮助你像社会学家一样思考。
1. Basic Quantitative Formulae in Social Research | 社会研究中的基本定量公式
Quantitative data helps sociologists spot patterns. The most basic tools are the mean, median, mode and percentage change. They turn raw numbers into meaningful comparisons.
定量数据帮助社会学家发现模式。最基本的工具是均值、中位数、众数和百分比变化。它们将原始数字转化为有意义的比较。
The mean (average) is the sum of all values divided by the number of cases.
均值（平均数）是所有数值之和除以个案数。
Mean = (Σxᵢ) ÷ n
Here Σxᵢ represents the sum of all individual scores and n is the total number of scores. For example, for the scores 4, 6, 8: Mean = (4+6+8) ÷ 3 = 6.
这里 Σxᵢ 表示所有单个分数之和，n 是分数的总个数。例如，对于分数 4、6、8：均值 = (4+6+8) ÷ 3 = 6。
The median is the middle value when all data are ordered from smallest to largest. If there are two middle values, take their mean.
中位数是将所有数据从小到大排列后位于中间的值。如果中间有两个值，则取它们的平均数。
Median position = (n + 1) ÷ 2
For the ordered set 2, 3, 8, 9, 14 (n=5), median position = 3, so median = 8. For 2, 3, 8, 9 (n=4), median = (3+8) ÷ 2 = 5.5.
对于有序数据集 2、3、8、9、14（n=5），中位数位置 = 3，因此中位数 = 8。对于 2、3、8、9（n=4），中位数 = (3+8) ÷ 2 = 5.5。
The mode is the value that appears most often in a set of data. A set can have one mode, more than one mode, or no mode at all.
众数是一组数据中出现次数最多的值。一组数据可以有一个众数、多个众数或根本没有众数。
Percentage change shows how much a value has increased or decreased compared to the original value. It is widely used to compare trends over time.
百分比变化表示一个值相对于原始值增加或减少了多少。它被广泛用于比较不同时期的变化趋势。
Percentage Change = (New Value − Old Value) ÷ Old Value × 100
If the divorce rate rose from 2.1 to 2.4 per 1000 people, the percentage change is (2.4 − 2.1) ÷ 2.1 × 100 ≈ 14.3%.
如果离婚率从每千人 2.1 上升到 2.4，则百分比变化为 (2.4 − 2.1) ÷ 2.1 × 100 ≈ 14.3%。
2. Measuring Population Trends | 衡量人口趋势
Demography studies the size, structure and movement of populations. Sociologists use rates rather than raw counts because rates allow fair comparisons between places with different total populations.
人口学研究人口的规模、结构和流动。社会学家使用率而不是原始计数，因为率允许在不同总人口的地方之间进行公平比较。
The crude birth rate (CBR) is the number of live births per 1000 people in a year.
粗出生率（CBR）是每年每千人口中的活产数。
CBR = (Number of live births in a year ÷ Total mid-year population) × 1000
The crude death rate (CDR) is the number of deaths per 1000 people in a year.
粗死亡率（CDR）是每年每千人口中的死亡数。
CDR = (Number of deaths in a year ÷ Total mid-year population) × 1000
The natural increase rate is simply the difference between the birth rate and the death rate, often expressed per 1000.
自然增长率就是出生率与死亡率之差，通常以每千人表示。
Natural Increase = CBR − CDR
Sociologists also track net migration: the number of immigrants minus the number of emigrants. The total population change formula combines natural increase and net migration.
社会学家也追踪净迁移：迁入人数减去迁出人数。总人口变化公式结合了自然增长和净迁移。
3. Understanding Divorce Rates | 理解离婚率
Divorce rates help sociologists study family change. The crude divorce rate is the most straightforward measure.
离婚率帮助社会学家研究家庭变迁。粗离婚率是最直接的衡量指标。
Crude Divorce Rate = (Number of divorces in a year ÷ Total mid-year population) × 1000
Because this rate includes children and unmarried people, sociologists sometimes prefer the divorce-to-marriage ratio, which compares divorces to existing marriages, or the refined divorce rate per 1000 married women.
由于该率包括了儿童和未婚人士，社会学家有时更倾向于使用离婚-成婚比，即将离婚数与现存婚姻数作比较，或使用每千名已婚女性的细化离婚率。
When analysing trends, always look at both the rate and the absolute numbers. A rise in the divorce rate could be due to easier access to divorce, changing social norms or women’s greater economic independence.
在分析趋势时，一定要同时观察率和绝对数字。离婚率上升可能是由于离婚变得更容易、社会规范变化，或者女性经济独立性增强。
4. Calculating Unemployment Rate | 计算失业率
Unemployment is a major social issue. The official formula compares the number of unemployed people actively seeking work to the total labour force.
失业是一个重大的社会问题。官方公式将积极寻找工作的失业人数与总劳动力进行比较。
Unemployment Rate = (Number of unemployed ÷ Labour force) × 100
The labour force includes all people of working age who are either employed or unemployed but actively looking for work. It excludes students, retired people and those not seeking work.
劳动力包括所有处于工作年龄且已就业或失业但正在积极寻找工作的人。它不包括学生、退休人员和没有寻找工作的人。
Sociologists criticise this measure because it ignores ‘hidden unemployed’ – people who want a job but have given up searching, or those forced into part-time work when they want full-time hours.
社会学家批评这一衡量标准，因为它忽略了‘隐性失业’——想工作但放弃寻找的人，或者那些想要全职工作却被迫从事兼职的人。
5. Social Mobility: Intergenerational Mobility Rate | 社会流动：代际流动率
Social mobility measures how easy it is for people to move up or down the social class ladder compared with their parents.
社会流动衡量人们相对于父母在社会阶层阶梯上下移动的容易程度。
Absolute intergenerational mobility is the proportion of people who end up in a different social class from their parents.
绝对代际流动是指最终与其父母进入不同社会阶层的人口比例。
Absolute Mobility Rate = (Number whose class differs from parents ÷ Total number sampled) × 100
For example, if 40 out of 100 children end up in a different class from their parents, the absolute mobility rate is 40%. A high rate suggests a more open society, though it does not tell you whether mobility was upward or downward.
例如，如果 100 个孩子中有 40 人最终进入了与其父母不同的阶层，则绝对流动率为 40%。高流动率表明一个更加开放的社会，但它没有告诉你流动是向上还是向下。
Sociologists also look at relative mobility, which compares the chances of children from different class backgrounds reaching a particular destination. This is measured using odds ratios, which are more complex but reveal the deep structure of inequality.
社会学家也研究相对流动，它比较不同阶层背景的子女到达特定目标的机会。这是用优势比来衡量的，更为复杂，但揭示了不平等的深层结构。
6. Measuring Poverty: The Poverty Line and Deprivation Index | 衡量贫困：贫困线及剥夺指数
Poverty can be absolute (a lack of basic necessities) or relative (being excluded from normal living standards in a society).
贫困可以是绝对的（缺乏基本必需品）或相对的（被排斥在一个社会正常的生活水平之外）。
The most common relative poverty threshold in the UK is households with income below 60% of the median household income.
英国最常见的相对贫困门槛是家庭收入低于全国家庭收入中位数的 60%。
Relative Poverty Line = Median equivalised household income × 0.6
Equivalised means the income is adjusted for family size and composition, because a larger family needs more money to enjoy the same standard of living.
等值化是指根据家庭规模和构成调整收入，因为较大的家庭需要更多的钱才能享受相同的生活水平。
Material deprivation indices go beyond income. They count whether households cannot afford items such as heating the home, a week’s holiday away, or replacing worn-out furniture. A household lacking three or more such items is often classed as materially deprived.
物质剥夺指数超越了收入。它们计算家庭是否负担不起如房屋采暖、一周外出度假或更换破旧家具等项目。缺少三项或以上此类物品的家庭通常被视为物质剥夺。
7. Key Theorem 1: Functionalism – Society as a System | 关键定理1：功能主义——社会是一个系统
Functionalism sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability. The early sociologist Emile Durkheim compared society to a living organism: each institution, like the family or education, has a function that keeps the ‘body’ healthy.
功能主义将社会视为一个复杂的系统，其组成部分协同工作以促进稳定。早期社会学家埃米尔·涂尔干将社会比作一个活的有机体：每一个制度，如家庭或教育，都有保持‘身体’健康的功能。
- Social integration: Shared values and norms bind people together, creating social solidarity.
- 社会整合：共同的价值观和规范将人们联结在一起，创造出社会团结。
- Manifest and latent functions: Schools deliberately teach reading (manifest function) but also provide childcare and social networks (latent functions).
- 显性功能和隐性功能：学校有意识地教阅读（显性功能），但也提供了托儿服务和社交网络（隐性功能）。
- Value consensus: Society works because most people agree on what is important. When that consensus breaks down, anomie (normlessness) arises.
- 价值共识：社会能够运作是因为大多数人对重要的事情有共识。当这种共识破裂时，就会出现失范（无规范状态）。
Functionalism helps explain why institutions persist, but critics say it overlooks power struggles and inequality.
功能主义有助于解释制度为何得以持续，但批评者认为它忽视了权力斗争和不平等。
8. Key Theorem 2: Conflict Theory – Class Struggle | 关键定理2：冲突理论——阶级斗争
Rooted in the work of Karl Marx, conflict theory argues that society is in a constant state of struggle over limited resources. The economy determines the shape of the rest of society.
植根于卡尔·马克思的著作，冲突理论认为社会处于对有限资源的持续争夺状态。经济决定了社会其他部分的形态。
- Bourgeoisie vs Proletariat: The bourgeoisie own the means of production (factories, land) and the proletariat sell their labour. Their interests are directly opposed.
- 资产阶级 vs 无产阶级：资产阶级拥有生产资料（工厂、土地），无产阶级出卖劳动力。他们的利益是直接对立的。
- Exploitation: Capitalists extract surplus value – the difference between the value workers produce and the wages they receive.
- 剥削：资本家榨取剩余价值——工人生产的价值与他们所得工资之间的差额。
- False class consciousness: The ruling class spreads ideas that justify inequality, so workers accept their position. When workers recognise their exploitation, they develop class consciousness and may engage in revolution.
- 虚假阶级意识：统治阶级传播为不平等辩护的观念，使工人接受自己的地位。当工人认识到自己被剥削时，便产生阶级意识，并可能进行革命。
Modern conflict theorists apply these ideas also to gender and race inequalities, looking at how dominant groups maintain power.
现代冲突理论家也将这些观点应用于性别和种族不平等，研究主导群体如何维持权力。
9. Key Theorem 3: Symbolic Interactionism – Meaning through Interaction | 关键定理3：符号互动论——互动产生意义
While functionalism and conflict theory focus on large-scale structures, symbolic interactionism zooms in on everyday face-to-face interactions. George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer argued that people act toward things based on the meanings those things have for them, and these meanings arise from social interaction.
功能主义和冲突理论专注于宏观结构，而符号互动论则聚焦于日常的面对面互动。乔治·赫伯特·米德和赫伯特·布鲁默认为，人们根据事物对他们的意义来对事物采取行动，而这些意义源于社会互动。
- Symbols: Words, gestures and objects carry shared meanings. A handshake, for example, is not just a movement but a symbol of greeting or agreement.
- 符号：词语、手势和物品承载着共同的意义。例如，握手不仅仅是一个动作，而是问候或达成一致的象征。
- Interpretation: People do not respond directly to stimuli; they interpret the situation first. A wink can mean a joke, a secret or an insult depending on context.
- 解释：人们并非直接对刺激作出反应，而是先解释情境。一个眨眼可以意味着笑话、秘密或侮辱，取决于语境。
- The ‘definition of the situation’: If people define a situation as real, it becomes real in its consequences (the Thomas theorem). If a student is labelled as talented, teachers treat them differently, and the student may perform better.
- ‘情境定义’：如果人们将一种情境定义为真实的，那么它就会在其后果中变成真实的（托马斯定理）。如果一个学生被标签为有才华，老师会对他们区别对待，学生就可能表现得更好。
10. Labelling Theory and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy | 标签理论与自我实现预言
Labelling theory emerges directly from symbolic interactionism. It suggests that deviance is not an inherent quality of an act but a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’.
标签理论直接源于符号互动论。它认为越轨并非行为本身的固有性质，而是将规则和制裁施加于‘违规者’的结果。
- Primary deviance: Small, initial rule-breaking acts that everyone commits occasionally, such as a one-off shoplifting incident. These acts are usually not central to a person’s identity.
- 初级越轨：微不足道的、偶尔发生的违规行为，每个人偶尔都会犯，比如一次性的商店行窃。这些行为通常不构成个人身份的核心。
- Secondary deviance: When a person is publicly labelled as deviant, they may internalise the label and adopt deviant behaviour as part of their identity. ‘If everyone treats me as a thief, I might as well become one.’
- 次级越轨：当一个人被公开贴上越轨者的标签，他们可能将标签内化，并把越轨行为作为身份的一部分。‘如果大家都把我当小偷，我还不如就做一个真的小偷。’
- Self-fulfilling prophecy: A false definition of a situation evokes behaviour that makes the originally false conception come true. A pupil labelled ‘troublemaker’ is excluded and then acts more disruptively, confirming the label.
- 自我实现预言：对情境的错误定义唤起了使原有错误概念成真的行为。一个被贴上‘捣蛋鬼’标签的学生被排斥，然后表现得更具破坏性，从而证实了这个标签。
Labelling theory has been influential in studies of crime, education and mental illness, showing that social reaction is often more powerful than the original act.
标签理论在犯罪、教育和精神疾病研究中很有影响力，表明社会反应往往比原始行为更强大。
11. Socialization: The Looking-Glass Self (Cooley) | 社会化：镜中我（库利）
Charles Horton Cooley introduced the concept of the ‘looking-glass self’ to explain how our self-image develops through social interaction. It is not based on what we objectively are but on how we imagine others perceive us.
查尔斯·霍顿·库利提出了‘镜中我’概念，以解释我们的自我形象如何通过社会互动发展起来。它不基于我们客观上是什么，而基于我们想象他人如何看待我们。
- Three steps: (1) We imagine how we appear to others. (2) We imagine their judgement of that appearance. (3) We develop a self-feeling, such as
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