📚 Year 8 AQA Geography: Core Knowledge Review | Year 8 AQA 地理：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide covers the essential topics you need to master in Year 8 AQA Geography. From plate tectonics to coastal management, each section presents key concepts in clear, paired English–Chinese explanations to support your learning and exam preparation.
本篇复习指南覆盖 Year 8 AQA 地理必须掌握的核心课题。从板块构造到海岸管理，每个部分都以清晰的中英文配对解释呈现，助力你的学习与备考。
1. Plate Tectonics and Tectonic Hazards | 板块构造与构造灾害
The Earth is made up of four main layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The crust and upper mantle form the lithosphere, which is broken into tectonic plates.
地球由四层结构组成：内核、外核、地幔和地壳。地壳和上地幔共同构成岩石圈，被分割成多个构造板块。
Heat from the Earth’s core creates convection currents in the mantle. These currents cause the plates to move slowly, at a rate of a few centimetres per year.
地核的热量在地幔中产生对流。这些对流导致板块以每年几厘米的速度缓慢移动。
There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent (plates move apart, forming new crust), convergent (plates collide, one subducts), and conservative (plates slide past each other).
板块边界主要有三种类型：扩张型（板块分离，形成新地壳）、汇聚型（板块碰撞，一块俯冲）和守恒型（板块横向滑动）。
Most earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur along plate boundaries, making these areas prone to tectonic hazards.
绝大多数地震和火山喷发都发生在板块边界，使得这些区域容易遭受构造灾害。
2. Volcanoes and Earthquakes | 火山与地震
Volcanoes form when magma from the mantle rises to the surface. Shield volcanoes have gentle slopes and runny lava, while composite volcanoes are steep with explosive eruptions.
当地幔中的岩浆上升到地表时形成火山。盾状火山坡度平缓，熔岩流动性强；复合火山则坡度陡峭，喷发具有爆炸性。
Earthquakes occur when stress builds up along faults and is suddenly released. The focus is the point inside the Earth where the earthquake starts; the epicentre is the point on the surface directly above.
当地震能量沿断层积累并突然释放时就会发生地震。震源是地球内部地震开始的位置，震中是震源正上方的地表点。
Earthquake magnitude is measured using the Richter scale, where each whole number increase means ten times greater shaking. Effects include building collapse, tsunamis, and fires.
震级用里氏震级测量，每增加一个整数意味着地面震动幅度增加十倍。影响包括建筑物倒塌、海啸和火灾。
Both hazards can cause loss of life, displacement, and economic damage. Preparation such as earthquake-proof buildings and early warning systems can reduce risks.
这两种灾害都可能导致生命损失、流离失所和经济破坏。防震建筑和预警系统等准备措施可以降低风险。
3. Weather and Climate | 天气与气候
Weather is the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere, including temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate is the average weather pattern over a long period, typically 30 years.
天气是指每天的大气状况，包括温度、降水和风。气候则是长期（通常为30年）的平均天气模式。
Climate is influenced by latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, and ocean currents. Places near the equator are warmer, while higher altitudes have cooler temperatures.
气候受纬度、海拔、距海远近和洋流的影响。赤道附近更温暖，海拔越高气温越低。
The world has distinct climate zones: tropical (hot and wet), temperate (mild, as in the UK), and polar (cold and dry).
世界具有独特的气候带：热带（炎热潮湿）、温带（温和，如英国）和寒带（寒冷干燥）。
In the UK, low-pressure systems (depressions) bring rain and wind, while high-pressure systems (anticyclones) bring settled, dry weather.
在英国，低压系统（气旋）带来降雨和大风，而高压系统（反气旋）带来稳定干燥的天气。
4. Climate Change: Causes and Impacts | 气候变化：原因与影响
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global weather patterns. The enhanced greenhouse effect, caused by human activities, is the main driver of recent warming.
气候变化是指全球气候模式的长期变化。人类活动导致的增强温室效应是近期全球变暖的主要驱动因素。
Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) trap heat in the atmosphere. Burning fossil fuels for energy and transport releases large amounts of CO₂.
二氧化碳（CO₂）和甲烷（CH₄）等温室气体在大气中截留热量。燃烧化石燃料获取能源和进行运输会释放大量二氧化碳。
Climate change leads to rising sea levels (from melting ice and thermal expansion), more frequent extreme weather events, and loss of habitats such as coral reefs.
气候变化导致海平面上升（源于冰川融化和热膨胀）、极端天气事件更频繁以及珊瑚礁等栖息地的丧失。
Mitigation strategies aim to reduce emissions, e.g., using renewable energy. Adaptation involves adjusting to effects, e.g., building flood defences.
减缓策略旨在减少排放，如使用可再生能源。适应指调整以应对影响，如建设防洪设施。
5. Ecosystems: Tropical Rainforests | 生态系统：热带雨林
Tropical rainforests are found near the equator, such as in the Amazon Basin. They have a hot (around 27°C) and very wet climate, with high rainfall all year.
热带雨林位于赤道附近，如亚马逊盆地。它们气候炎热（约27°C）且非常湿润，全年降雨充沛。
The rainforest is structured in layers: the emergent layer (tall trees), canopy (dense leaf cover), understory (young trees, shrubs), and forest floor (dark, decomposing matter).
雨林结构分层：露生层（高大乔木）、冠层（密集的叶片覆盖）、下层（幼树、灌木）和地表层（阴暗，枯枝落叶层）。
High biodiversity is supported by constant warmth and moisture. Plants have adaptations such as drip tips and buttress roots; animals are adapted for climbing and camouflage.
持续温暖潮湿的环境维持了极高的生物多样性。植物具有滴水叶尖和板根等适应性特征，动物则适应攀爬和伪装。
Deforestation occurs due to cattle ranching, logging, and mining. This destroys habitats and contributes to climate change. Sustainable practices include selective logging and eco-tourism.
森林砍伐源于养牛业、伐木和采矿，这破坏了栖息地并加剧气候变化。可持续做法包括选择性砍伐和生态旅游。
6. Ecosystems: Hot Deserts | 生态系统：炎热沙漠
Hot deserts are located around 30° north and south of the equator, e.g., the Sahara. They have extreme temperatures: very hot in the day, cold at night, and very little rain (under 250 mm annually).
炎热沙漠分布在赤道南北约30°的区域，如撒哈拉沙漠。它们气温极端：白天酷热，夜间寒冷，降雨极少（年降水量小于250毫米）。
Plants such as cacti store water in thick stems and have spines to reduce water loss. Many animals are nocturnal to avoid heat and have adaptations like large ears to radiate heat.
仙人掌等植物将水分储存在粗壮的茎中，并长有尖刺以减少水分流失。许多动物夜间活动以避热，并具有如大耳朵等散热适应特征。
Desertification is the spread of desert-like conditions due to overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change, threatening livelihoods. Water management, such as irrigation and aquifers, is crucial.
荒漠化是由于过度放牧、森林砍伐和气候变化导致的沙漠化土地扩张，威胁着生计。灌溉和利用含水层等水资源管理至关重要。
Deserts offer opportunities like solar energy farms and mineral resources, but development must be careful not to harm fragile ecosystems.
沙漠提供了太阳能发电场和矿产资源等机会，但开发必须谨慎以免破坏脆弱的生态系统。
7. Population Dynamics | 人口动态
Population change
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