📚 Year 8 WJEC Psychology: Quick Reference Guide to Formulas and Principles | Year 8 WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your Year 8 WJEC Psychology quick reference guide. Psychology may not look like a subject filled with mathematical formulas, but it has many powerful ‘laws’, ‘principles’ and ‘effects’ that work like equations. Understanding these rules helps you explain why we remember some things and forget others, how our senses work, and what drives our behaviour. This handbook brings together the key formulas, ratios and principles you need to know, presented in a clear, pupil-friendly format.
欢迎使用你的 Year 8 WJEC 心理学速查手册。心理学或许不像一门充满数学公式的学科，但它有许多强大的“定律”、“原理”和“效应”，它们就像方程式一样发挥着作用。理解这些规则，能够帮助你解释为什么我们记住一些事情却忘记另一些，我们的感官如何运作，以及是什么驱动着我们的行为。这本手册汇集了你需要掌握的关键公式、比率和原理，并以清晰、适合学生使用的形式呈现。
1. Multi-Store Model & Miller’s Law | 多储存模型与米勒定律
The Multi-Store Model of memory describes how information flows through sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Within STM, a famous principle known as Miller’s Law tells us about the limited capacity of our immediate memory span.
记忆的多储存模型描述了信息如何流经感觉登记、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。在短时记忆中，一项被称为米勒定律的著名原理告诉我们，即时记忆广度有着有限的容量。
Short-Term Memory Capacity ≈ 7 ± 2 chunks
Most people can hold between 5 and 9 separate items or ‘chunks’ in their STM at any one time. Chunking information together, such as grouping digits into a phone number format, helps us overcome this limit.
大多数人在任何时刻的短时记忆中能同时保持 5 到 9 个独立的项目或“组块”。将信息组块化，例如把数字按电话号码的格式分组，可以帮助我们突破这一限制。
2. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Formula | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线公式
Hermann Ebbinghaus studied how memory fades over time. He found that forgetting is rapid at first, then levels off. This relationship can be expressed as a saving score, showing how much information is retained.
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯研究了记忆随时间消退的规律。他发现遗忘起初非常迅速，随后趋于平缓。这种关系可以用节省分数来表示，显示有多少信息被保留了下来。
Saving (%) = [(Original learning time – Relearning time) / Original learning time] × 100
A higher saving percentage means better retention. The curve tells us that revision soon after learning dramatically slows forgetting. Using spaced practice is the best strategy to keep the curve high.
节省百分比越高，表示保持得越好。这条曲线告诉我们，学习后及时复习能大幅减缓遗忘。采用间隔练习是让曲线保持高位的最佳策略。
3. IQ Calculation | 智商计算
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was originally calculated by comparing mental age with chronological age. The ratio IQ formula is a simple way to quantify intellectual development, and it appears in many introductory psychology courses.
智商（IQ）最初是通过比较心理年龄和实际年龄来计算出来的。比率智商公式是量化智力发展的一种简单方法，并出现在许多心理学入门课程中。
IQ = (Mental age / Chronological age) × 100
For example, a 10-year-old child who performs at the level of an average 12-year-old has an IQ of (12/10) × 100 = 120. This formula helps us understand how intelligence tests originally standardised scores.
例如，一个 10 岁的孩子能达到普通 12 岁孩子的水平，其智商就是 (12/10) × 100 = 120。这个公式帮助我们理解智力测验最初是如何将分数标准化的。
4. Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal | 耶克斯-多德森唤醒定律
The Yerkes-Dodson Law describes the relationship between arousal, task difficulty and performance. It is often drawn as an inverted U-shaped curve rather than a simple equation, but we can summarise its core principle with a descriptive rule.
耶克斯-多德森定律描述了唤醒水平、任务难度和表现之间的关系。它通常被描绘成一条倒 U 形曲线，而非一个简单的方程式，但我们可以用一条描述性规则来总结其核心原理。
Optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal; too little = boredom, too much = anxiety
For easy or well-practised tasks, higher arousal can improve performance. For difficult or new tasks, lower arousal is better. This law helps explain why a little nervousness before an exam can be helpful, but extreme panic can make you freeze.
对于简单或练习充分的任务，较高的唤醒水平能提升表现。对于困难或新颖的任务，较低的唤醒水平则更为有利。这条定律有助于解释为什么考前有点紧张可能有益，但极度恐慌却会让你大脑一片空白。
5. Weber’s Law of Just Noticeable Difference | 韦伯最小可觉差定律
Weber’s Law deals with our ability to detect changes in stimuli, such as brightness, loudness or weight. It states that the just noticeable difference (JND) is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity.
韦伯定律涉及我们对刺激（如亮度、响度或重量）变化的觉察能力。它指出，最小可觉差（JND）是原始刺激强度的一个恒定比例。
ΔI / I = k (where ΔI = JND, I = initial intensity, k = Weber fraction)
If you are holding a 100-gram weight, you might notice a change only when another 2 grams are added (k = 0.02). But for a 200-gram weight, you would need an extra 4 grams to notice the difference. This shows our senses become less sensitive to change as background intensity increases.
如果你正拿着一个 100 克的砝码，可能只有再增加 2 克时你才会注意到变化（k = 0.02）。但对于一个 200 克的砝码，则需要增加 4 克你才能察觉出不同。这表明，随着背景强度的增加，我们的感官对变化会变得不那么敏感。
6. Social Exchange Theory Equation | 社会交换理论方程
In social psychology, the Social Exchange Theory suggests we weigh up the rewards and costs before deciding whether to maintain a relationship. It is often summarised as a simple comparison level equation.
在社会心理学中，社会交换理论认为，我们在决定是否维持一段关系前会权衡回报和成本。它常常被概括为一个简单的比较水平方程式。
Outcome = Rewards – Costs
If the outcome is positive and compares favourably to what we think we deserve (our comparison level), we are likely to stay in the relationship. The theory applies to friendships, romantic partnerships and even group memberships.
如果结果是正向的，并且与我们自认为应得的标准（比较水平）相比是有利的，我们就很可能会留在那段关系中。这一理论适用于友谊、恋爱关系乃至群体成员关系。
7. Serial Position Effect Curve | 序列位置效应曲线
When we try to remember a list of items, we do not recall each one equally. The serial position effect describes how the position in the list influences recall probability. It breaks down into the primacy effect and the recency effect.
当我们试图记住一串项目时，并不会同等程度地回忆起每一个。序列位置效应描述了列表中的位置如何影响回忆概率。它可分解为首因效应和近因效应。
Recall probability = Primacy (better for first items) + dip in middle + Recency (better for last items)
The primacy effect occurs because early items get more rehearsal and enter long-term memory. The recency effect occurs because the last items are still fresh in short-term memory. This pattern is one of the strongest regularities found in memory research.
首因效应的产生是因为开头的项目得到了更多的复述，从而进入长时记忆。近因效应的出现则是因为末尾的项目还留存在短时记忆之中。这种模式是记忆研究中最稳固的规律之一。
8. All-or-None Principle of Neural Firing | 神经元放电的全或无原理
Biological psychology gives us a rule about how neurons work. A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all, much like a digital switch. There is no such thing as a ‘partial’ action potential.
生理心理学为我们提供了一条关于神经元如何工作的规则。一个神经元要么完全放电，要么完全不放电，很像一个数字开关。不存在什么“部分”动作电位。
If stimulus > threshold voltage → Action potential occurs; otherwise → No firing
Once the electrical charge inside the neuron reaches a critical threshold (about -55 mV), an action potential travels down the axon. The strength of the signal does not vary; what changes is the frequency and pattern of firing. This all-or-none law ensures messages travel reliably along neural pathways.
一旦神经元内部的电荷达到临界阈值（约 -55 毫伏），一个动作电位就会沿轴突传下去。信号的强度并不会变化；发生变化的是放电的频率和模式。这条全或无定律确保了信息能够可靠地沿着神经通路传递。
9. Cognitive Dissonance Ratio | 认知失调比率
Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance suggests we feel uncomfortable when our attitudes and behaviours clash. The amount of discomfort can be thought of as a ratio between the importance of the inconsistency and the total cognitive elements involved.
利昂·费斯廷格的认知失调理论指出，当我们的态度和行为发生冲突时，我们会感到不适。这种不适的程度可以被看作是失调的重要性与所涉及的总体认知元素之间的一个比率。
Dissonance magnitude ≈ (Sum of inconsistent cognitions × Importance) / (Sum of all cognitions × Importance)
In practice, the stronger and more important the clashing thoughts, the greater the motivation to reduce the dissonance. People might change their attitude, alter their behaviour, or add new justifications to bring things back into balance.
在实践中，相互冲突的想法越强烈、越重要，减少失调的动机就越强。人们可能会改变态度、调整行为，或者增加新的合理化理由，以使内心重新恢复平衡。
10. Classical Conditioning Association Formula | 经典条件反射关联式
Classical conditioning explains how we learn to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one. The process can be written as a simple formula showing the shift from unconditioned response to conditioned response.
经典条件反射解释了我们如何学会将一个中性刺激与一个有意义的刺激联系起来。这一过程可以写成一个简单的公式，显示出从无条件反应到条件反应的转变。
US → UR; then NS + US → UR; finally CS → CR
In Pavlov’s experiment, food (US) caused salivation (UR). A bell (NS) was paired with food until the bell alone (now CS) elicited salivation (CR). Understanding this A-B-C formula helps us explain phobias, advertising, and many everyday associations.
在巴甫洛夫的实验中，食物（US）引起唾液分泌（UR）。铃声（NS）与食物反复配对，直到仅凭铃声（现在成为 CS）就能引发唾液分泌（CR）。理解这个 A-B-C 公式有助于我们解释恐惧症、广告以及许多日常联结。
11. The GAS Stress Response Triad | 一般适应综合征应激反应三阶段
Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is not an equation but a three-stage physiological principle describing how the body reacts to prolonged stress. It acts as a law-like sequence in biopsychology.
汉斯·塞利的一般适应综合征（GAS）并非一个方程式，而是一个描述身体如何应对长期压力的三阶段生理学原理。它在生物心理学中扮演着类似定律般的序列角色。
Stress response sequence: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion
During the alarm stage, the fight-or-flight response is activated. In the resistance stage, the body tries to cope and adapt. If the stress continues, the exhaustion stage sets in, where resources are depleted and illness becomes likely. Knowing this flow helps us manage well-being.
在警戒阶段，战斗或逃跑反应被激活。在抵抗阶段，身体努力应对并适应。如果压力持续存在，就会进入衰竭阶段，此时资源耗尽，很容易引发疾病。了解这一流程有助于我们管理身心健康。
12. Memory Reconstructive ‘Equation’ | 记忆重构“方程式”
Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory argues that recall is not like playing a video recording. Instead, we rebuild memories using fragments, schemas and expectations. A descriptive formula captures this active process.
巴特利特的记忆重构理论认为，回忆并非像播放录像一样。相反，我们利用碎片、图式和期望来重建记忆。一个描述性公式能够捕捉这一主动过程。
Recalled memory = Actual fragments + Schema-based inferences – Omissions + Possible distortions
Because we fill gaps based on our cultural schemas and past experiences, memories can change over time. This explains why eyewitness testimony can be unreliable and why two people may recall the same event differently.
由于我们会基于自己的文化图式和过往经历来填补空白，记忆会随着时间推移而发生改变。这解释了为什么目击者证词可能不可靠，也解释了为什么两个人可能对同一事件有着不同的回忆。
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