📚 AQA Year 10 Politics: Key Terms Revision Guide | AQA 十年级政治：关键术语速记指南
This bilingual revision guide is designed to help Year 10 AQA Politics students master the essential vocabulary needed for success. Each key term is accompanied by a clear English definition and an equivalent explanation in Chinese, making it easier to recall, understand and apply concepts across democracy, government, law and participation.
这本双语速记指南专为 AQA 十年级政治学生编写，旨在帮助掌握核心词汇。每个关键术语都配有清晰的英文定义和对应的中文解释，让你更容易记忆、理解并运用关于民主、政府、法律与公民参与的各种概念。
1. Democracy and Participation | 民主与参与
Democracy: A system of government in which power is held by the people, who can exercise it directly or through elected representatives. Key features include free and fair elections, protection of rights and the rule of law.
民主：一种由人民掌握权力、可以直接或通过选举产生的代表行使权力的政府体制。其关键特征包括自由公正的选举、对权利的保护以及法治。
Direct democracy: A form of democracy where citizens vote on laws and policies themselves, without relying on representatives. Modern examples are rare but include referendums on specific issues.
直接民主：公民亲自对法律和政策进行投票而不依赖代表的民主形式。现代实例很少，但针对特定问题的全民公投便属于直接民主。
Representative democracy: The most common form of democracy today, in which people choose representatives to make decisions and pass laws on their behalf. The UK is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system.
代议制民主：当今最普遍的民主形式，人民选举代表，由代表代为决策和制定法律。英国是议会制下的代议制民主国家。
Referendum: A direct vote by the electorate on a single political question that has been referred to them for a direct decision. The 2016 Brexit referendum is a prominent UK example.
全民公投：选民就提交给他们的某一政治问题进行的直接投票。2016 年英国脱欧公投便是一个突出例子。
Participation: The ways in which citizens can get involved in political and civic life, including voting, joining a political party, campaigning, protesting and contacting representatives.
参与：公民参与政治和公共生活的方式，包括投票、加入政党、开展活动、抗议以及联系代表。
Accountability: The principle that those in power must be answerable to the people and can be held to account for their actions. In a democracy, regular elections and a free press help ensure accountability.
问责制：掌权者必须对人民负责并可因其行为受到追责的原则。在民主国家，定期选举和新闻自由有助于确保问责。
2. The UK Constitution | 英国宪法
Constitution: A set of rules, laws and principles that determines how a state is governed, where power lies and what rights citizens have. Unlike many countries, the UK does not have a single written constitutional document.
宪法：一套确定国家如何治理、权力归属以及公民享有何种权利的规则、法律和原则。与许多国家不同，英国没有一部单一的成文宪法文件。
Uncodified constitution: A constitution that is not contained in one single document; instead it is drawn from multiple sources. The UK constitution is uncodified, coming from statutes, conventions, common law and authoritative works.
不成文宪法：并非包含在单一文件中的宪法，而是源自多种渊源。英国宪法是不成文的，来自制定法、惯例、普通法和权威著作。
Parliamentary sovereignty: A cornerstone of the UK constitution meaning that Parliament is the supreme legal authority and can create or end any law. No other body, including the courts, can overturn an Act of Parliament.
议会主权：英国宪法的基石，意味着议会是最高立法机关，可以制定或废止任何法律。其他任何机构，包括法院，都不能推翻议会立法。
Rule of law: The principle that everyone, including those in government, is subject to the law and that the law should be fairly applied and enforced. It protects individuals from arbitrary power.
法治：包括政府成员在内的所有人都受法律约束、法律应当公平适用和执行的原则。法治保护个人免遭专横权力的侵害。
Devolution: The transfer of certain powers and responsibilities from central government to regional or local governments. In the UK, devolution has created the Scottish Parliament, Senedd Cymru and the Northern Ireland Assembly, each with law-making powers on devolved matters.
权力下放：将中央政府的某些权力和责任转移给地区或地方政府。在英国，权力下放产生了苏格兰议会、威尔士议会和北爱尔兰议会，各自对下放事项拥有立法权。
Separation of powers: The idea that the three branches of state – the legislature, the executive and the judiciary – should be kept largely separate to prevent too much power concentrating in one body and to provide checks and balances.
三权分立：国家三大分支——立法机关、行政机关和司法机关——应当大体分开的理念，以防止权力过度集中并实现制衡。
3. Parliament | 议会
Parliament: The UK’s highest legislative body, composed of the monarch, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Its main functions are to make laws, scrutinise the government, authorise spending and represent the public.
议会：英国最高立法机构，由君主、下议院和上议院组成。其主要职能是制定法律、监督政府、批准支出和代表公众。
House of Commons: The elected lower chamber of Parliament. Its members are called Members of Parliament (MPs), each representing a constituency. The Commons is the primary legislative chamber and holds the government to account.
下议院：经选举产生的议会下院，其成员被称为国会议员（MP），每人代表一个选区。下议院是主要的立法院，并负有追究政府责任的职责。
House of Lords: The unelected upper chamber of Parliament, made up of life peers, bishops and hereditary peers. It revises and scrutinises legislation and acts as a check on the Commons, though its powers are limited by conventions and statute.
上议院：不经选举产生的议会上院，由终身贵族、主教和世袭贵族组成。它负责修订和审查立法，并制约下议院，但其权力受惯例和成文法限制。
Bill: A proposal for a new law, or a proposal to change an existing law, that is presented to Parliament for debate. Bills must pass through several stages in both Houses and receive Royal Assent to become law.
法案：向议会提交的、关于新法律或修改现有法律的提案。法案须在两院经过多个阶段并获御准后方可成为法律。
Act of Parliament: A bill that has successfully passed all stages in Parliament and received Royal Assent, thereby becoming a law that must be upheld by the courts and the country.
议会立法：成功通过议会所有阶段并获御准的法案，由此成为法院和全国都必须遵守的法律。
Scrutiny: The process by which Parliament examines and challenges the work of the government. This takes place through questions, debates, select committees and investigating policy and spending.
审查：议会检查和质疑政府工作的过程，通过质询、辩论、特别委员会以及调查政策与开支进行。
Constituency: A geographical area represented by an elected MP in the House of Commons. Each constituency has roughly similar numbers of voters, enabling fair representation based on population.
选区：在下议院由一名当选议员代表的地理区域。每个选区选民数量大致相近，以保证基于人口的公平代表。
4. Government and the Executive | 政府与行政机关
Government: The group of people who run the country day-to-day and who are responsible for developing and implementing laws and policies. In the UK, the government is formed by the political party with the most seats in the House of Commons.
政府：负责日常管理国家、制定并实施法律和政策的一群人。在英国，政府由在下议院拥有最多席位的政党组成。
Executive: The branch of government responsible for putting laws and policies into effect. The Prime Minister and Cabinet form the core of the UK executive, supported by government departments and the civil service.
行政机关：负责将法律和政策付诸实施的政府部门。首相和内阁构成英国行政机关的核心，由政府部门与文官体系支持。
Prime Minister: The head of the UK government. The Prime Minister chairs Cabinet meetings, sets the overall direction of government policy, represents the nation internationally and advises the monarch on key appointments.
首相：英国政府首脑。首相主持内阁会议，确定政府政策总方向，在国际上代表国家，并就重要任命向君主提供建议。
Cabinet: A group of senior ministers chosen by the Prime Minister to lead major government departments. The Cabinet coordinates policy across departments and makes key decisions collectively.
内阁：由首相挑选的一组高级部长，负责领导主要政府部门。内阁协调跨部门政策并集体作出重要决定。
Civil service: A politically neutral body of officials who work for the government, carrying out the implementation of policies and the day-to-day administration of public services. Civil servants are permanent employees and do not change with elections.
文官队伍：为政府工作的政治中立机构，负责执行政策以及日常公共服务的行政管理。文官是常任雇员，不因选举而变动。
Manifesto: A public declaration of a political party’s policies and promises, published before a general election. Once in government, the winning party is expected to implement its manifesto commitments, though it is not legally bound to do so.
竞选宣言：政党在大选前公布的政策与承诺的公开声明。获胜政党执政后，一般被期望履行其宣言承诺，尽管并无法律约束。
Collective responsibility: A constitutional convention under which all Cabinet ministers must publicly support government decisions, even if they privately disagree. If a minister cannot do so, they are expected to resign.
集体负责制：一项宪法惯例，要求所有内阁大臣必须公开支持政府决策，即便私下持有异议。若无法做到，该大臣应辞职。
5. Political Parties and Elections | 政党与选举
Political party: An organised group of people sharing similar political opinions and goals, seeking to win elections, form a government and influence public policy. Parties develop manifestos to attract voter support.
政党：一群拥有相似政治观点和目标的有组织人群，力图赢得选举、组建政府并影响公共政策。政党制定竞选宣言以争取选民支持。
Left wing: A political position favouring greater equality, social justice and a significant role for the state in the economy. Left-wing policies often include higher taxation on the wealthy, more public spending and stronger workers’ rights.
左翼：支持更高程度的平等、社会正义以及国家在经济中发挥重要作用的政治立场。左翼政策通常包括对富人征收较高税收、增加公共支出、强化劳工权利。
Right wing: A political position emphasising individual freedom, free markets, lower taxation and a limited role for the state. Right-wing policies tend to favour lower public spending and place more responsibility on individuals and private enterprise.
右翼：强调个人自由、自由市场、较低税收和有限政府角色的政治立场。右翼政策倾向于较低公共支出，并将更多责任交由个人和私营企业承担。
General election: An election in which all seats in the House of Commons are contested, held at least every five years under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 (or sooner if called early). The result determines which party or coalition forms the government.
大选：下议院所有席位进行竞选的选举，根据 2011 年《固定任期议会法》至少每五年举行一次（亦可提前召集）。选举结果决定由哪个政党或政党联盟组成政府。
First past the post: The electoral system used for UK general elections. In each constituency, the candidate with the most votes wins the seat, even if they do not receive an overall majority. It often leads to single-party government but can create disproportionality between votes won and seats gained.
简单多数制：英国大选使用的选举制度。在每个选区，得票最多的候选人赢得席位，即使未取得绝对多数。该制度常带来单一政党政府，但可能造成得票与议席之间的比例失衡。
Proportional representation: An electoral system designed to allocate seats in proportion to the number of votes each party receives. Variations exist, such as the Additional Member System used in Scottish Parliament elections, aiming for a fairer link between votes and representation.
比例代表制：旨在根据各党得票比例分配席位的选举制度。存在不同变体，例如苏格兰议会选举使用的附加议员制，力求在得票与代表之间建立更公平的联系。
Turnout: The percentage of eligible voters who actually cast a ballot in an election. High turnout is often seen as a sign of healthy democratic engagement, while low turnout can raise concerns about public alienation from politics.
投票率：有资格投票者中实际参加选举投票的百分比。高投票率常被视为民主参与状况良好的标志，而低投票率则可能引发对公众政治疏离的担忧。
6. The Judiciary | 司法机构
Judiciary: The system of courts and judges that interprets and applies the law. It is independent from the legislative and executive branches, ensuring that justice is administered without political interference.
司法机构：负责解释和适用法律的法院与法官体系。它独立于立法和行政机关，确保司法不受政治干预。
Supreme Court: The highest court in the UK, established in 2009 under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. It hears cases of the greatest public importance and serves as the final court of appeal, overseeing the consistent development of UK law.
最高法院：根据 2005 年《宪制改革法》于 2009 年成立的英国最高级别法院。它审理最重大的公共案件，作为最终上诉法院，监督英国法律的统一发展。
Judicial review: A legal process through which individuals or organisations can challenge the lawfulness of decisions or actions taken by public bodies, including the government. Courts can quash a decision if it is found to be illegal, irrational or procedurally unfair.
司法复核：个人或组织可借以挑战包括政府在内的公共机构所作决定或行为合法性的法律程序。若法院认定决定违法、不合理或程序不当，可予以撤销。
Judicial independence: The principle that judges must be free to decide cases solely on the basis of the law and evidence, without pressure from the government, media or public opinion. Security of tenure and fixed salaries help protect this independence.
司法独立：法官必须能够完全基于法律和证据裁决案件、不受政府、媒体或舆论压力的原则。法官任期保障和固定薪酬有助于保护这种独立性。
Justice: The fair and impartial treatment of all individuals under the law. It involves ensuring that people’s rights are respected, that wrongdoers are held to account and that the legal process is administered equitably.
公正/正义：法律之下对所有个人的公平且不偏不倚的对待，包括确保权利得到尊重、追究违法者责任以及平等执行法律程序。
Courts: Institutions that adjudicate legal disputes and administer justice. In the UK, the court system is structured hierarchically, with Magistrates’ Courts and Crown Courts at lower levels up to the Supreme Court at the apex.
法院：裁决法律争议并执行司法的机构。在英国，法院系统层级分明，从治安法院和刑事法院等较低层级，直至顶端的最高法院。
7. Rights and Freedoms | 权利与自由
Rights: Legal, social or ethical entitlements that individuals possess. In the UK, rights are protected by common law, statute and international agreements such as the Human Rights Act 1998, which incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into domestic law.
权利：个人拥有的法律、社会或道德保障。在英国，权利受到普通法、制定法以及诸如 1998 年《人权法》等国际协定的保护，该法将《欧洲人权公约》纳入国内法律体系。
Freedoms: The ability to act, speak or think without interference or constraint. Classical political freedoms include freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and freedom of religion, though these can be subject to limitations necessary in a democratic society.
自由：不受干涉或约束地行动、言论或思考的能力。经典的政治自由包括言论自由、集会自由和宗教自由，但这些自由可因民主社会之必要而受到一定限制。
Human Rights Act 1998: A UK law that allows individuals to defend their rights set out in the European Convention on Human Rights in UK courts, without needing to go to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. It requires public authorities to act in a way compatible with Convention rights.
1998 年《人权法》：允许个人在英国法院维护《欧洲人权公约》所规定权利的法律，无需前往斯特拉斯堡的欧洲人权法院。它要求公共机构以符合公约权利的方式行事。
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR): An international treaty drafted in 1950 by the Council of Europe, setting out a catalogue of civil and political rights and freedoms. The UK remains a signatory and the Human Rights Act gives ECHR rights effect in domestic law.
《欧洲人权公约》（ECHR）：由欧洲委员会于 1950 年草拟的国际条约，载明了一系列公民权利和政治权利与自由。英国仍是签署国，而《人权法》使公约权利在国内法律中生效。
Discrimination: Treating a person or group less favourably because of a protected characteristic such as race, gender, religion, disability or sexual orientation. The UK Equality Act 2010 makes many forms of discrimination unlawful.
歧视：因种族、性别、宗教、残疾或性取向等受保护特征而给予某人或某个群体较差待遇的行为。英国 2010 年《平等法》将多种形式的歧视定为非法。
Equality: The principle that all people should have the same opportunities and be treated with equal respect. In a legal context, it means the law should not disadvantage individuals based on irrelevant personal characteristics.
平等：所有人都应享有同等机会并获得平等尊重的原则。在法律语境下，它意味着法律不应以无关的个人特征对个体不利。
Responsibilities: The duties that citizens have alongside their rights. These include obeying the law, paying taxes, serving on a jury when called and respecting the rights of others. Balancing rights and responsibilities underpins an orderly society.
责任：公民在享有权利同时负有的义务，包括遵守法律、纳税、应召担任陪审员以及尊重他人权利。权利与责任的平衡是社会有序运行的基础。
8. Citizen Participation and Action | 公民参与和行动
Pressure group: An organised group that seeks to influence government policy, public opinion or corporate behaviour without standing for office. Pressure groups can be insider (working closely with government) or outsider (relying on public campaigns and direct action). Examples include Greenpeace and the RSPCA.
压力团体：旨在影响政府政策、公众舆论或企业行为的组织，不参选公职。压力团体可分为内部人（与政府密切合作）和外部人（依靠公众运动与直接行动）。例如绿色和平和皇家防止虐待动物协会。
Lobbying: The activity of trying to persuade politicians, especially MPs and ministers, to support a particular cause or policy. Professional lobbyists are often employed by businesses, charities and campaign groups to influence decision-making.
游说：试图说服政治人物（尤其议员和部长）支持某一特定事业或政策的活动。企业、慈善机构和运动团体常雇佣专业游说者以影响决策。
Petition: A formal written request, typically signed by many people, appealing to an authority to take a particular action. The UK government and Parliament have electronic petition systems; a petition reaching 100,000 signatures may be considered for a parliamentary debate.
请愿：通常由多人签名的正式书面请求，呼吁当局采取特定行动。英国政府和议会设有电子请愿系统；获得 10 万签名的请愿或可被纳入议会辩论的考量。
Campaign: An organised series of actions intended to bring about a political or social change. Campaigns use various methods, from public demonstrations and leaflets to social media, to raise awareness and mobilise support.
运动：旨在实现政治或社会变革的一系列有组织行动。运动运用从公众示威、传单到社交媒体等多种方式，以提高认知并争取支持。
Trade union: An association of workers formed to protect and promote their rights and interests, particularly in relation to pay, working conditions and job security. Trade unions may also campaign on broader social and political issues and are often linked to the Labour Party.
工会：工人为保护和促进自身权利和利益而结成的组织，特别就薪酬、工作条件和就业保障开展工作。工会也可在更广泛的社会和政治议题上开展运动，常与工党有关联。
Volunteering: Giving one’s time freely to benefit others or the community without being paid. In a democracy, volunteering can strengthen civic life and social cohesion, and it counts as an important form of political participation alongside voting and campaigning.
志愿服务：无偿奉献时间以帮助他人或社区。在民主社会中，志愿服务能够强化公民生活和社会凝聚力，被视为与投票和竞选同样重要的政治参与形式。
Citizen: A legally recognised member of a state, entitled to rights and protections and subject to its laws. Active citizenship implies not only holding the status but also taking part in public affairs and contributing to the community.
公民：一个国家的法定成员，享有权利和保护并受其法律约束。积极的公民身份不仅意味着拥有该身份，还包括参与公共事务并为社区做贡献。
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