📚 Core Knowledge Points for Year 10 CAIE Philosophy | Year 10 CAIE 哲学核心知识点梳理
Philosophy at Year 10 under the CAIE curriculum introduces students to the fundamental questions that have shaped human thought for millennia. This article provides a structured overview of the essential concepts, arguments, and thinkers you will encounter, covering epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics to build a solid foundation for your IGCSE Philosophy studies.
在 CAIE 课程体系下，Year 10 的哲学课程向学生介绍了数千年来塑造人类思想的根本问题。本文提供了一个结构化的概览，梳理了认识论、形而上学与伦理学中的核心概念、论证及思想家，为你的 IGCSE 哲学学习打下坚实基础。
1. What is Philosophy? | 什么是哲学？
Philosophy is the rational attempt to formulate, understand, and answer fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Unlike empirical sciences that rely on experimentation, philosophy uses logical reasoning and conceptual analysis to challenge assumptions and explore the principles underlying all thought.
哲学是通过理性来提出、理解并回答关于存在、知识、价值、理性、心灵与语言等根本问题的尝试。与依靠实验的经验科学不同，哲学运用逻辑推理和概念分析来挑战预设，并探究一切思想背后的基本原则。
Philosophers do not accept claims at face value; they ask ‘Why?’ and demand coherence. For CAIE students, the first skill to develop is the ability to recognise philosophical questions, which are open, abstract, and cannot be settled by empirical evidence alone.
哲学家不会不加思索地接受主张；他们会追问’为什么？’并要求前后一致。对于 CAIE 学生而言，需要培养的第一项技能是识别哲学问题——这些问题是开放的、抽象的，且无法单凭经验证据来解决。
2. Knowledge and Belief | 知识与信念
In epistemology, knowledge is traditionally analysed as justified true belief (JTB). This means that for a person S to know a proposition p, three conditions must be satisfied: p must be true, S must believe that p, and S must have adequate justification for believing p.
在认识论中，知识传统上被分析为经过辩护的真信念（JTB）。这意味着，一个人 S 知道命题 p 需要满足三个条件：p 必须为真，S 必须相信 p，并且 S 必须有充分的理由或辩护来相信 p。
However, Edmund Gettier’s famous counterexamples demonstrated that having a justified true belief is not always sufficient for knowledge. In a Gettier case, a belief can be true and justified merely by luck, which most agree does not count as genuine knowledge. This ‘Gettier problem’ has led philosophers to propose additional conditions, such as the ‘no false lemmas’ condition or causal connections.
然而，埃德蒙·葛梯尔著名的反例表明，拥有一个经过辩护的真信念并不总是足以构成知识。在葛梯尔案例中，一个信念可能仅仅因为运气而为真且得到辩护，大多数人都同意这不能算作真正的知识。这个’葛梯尔问题’促使哲学家们提出额外的条件，例如’无错误引理’条件或因果联系。
3. Empiricism vs Rationalism | 经验主义与理性主义
Empiricism claims that the primary source of knowledge is sensory experience. Key figures like John Locke argued that the human mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth, and all concepts are derived from experience through sensation and reflection. There are no innate ideas.
经验主义主张，知识的主要来源是感官经验。约翰·洛克等关键人物认为，人类心灵在出生时是一块白板，所有概念都来源于通过感觉和内省获得的经验，不存在先天观念。
Rationalism, by contrast, holds that reason alone can provide significant knowledge, independent of experience. René Descartes, for example, argued that certain ideas—such as the idea of God, mathematics, and the self—are innate and known through pure reason. Rationalists point to necessary truths like ‘2 + 2 = 4’ which seem to be known a priori, without checking the world.
相反，理性主义认为，单凭理性就能提供重要的知识，不依赖于经验。例如，勒内·笛卡尔论证说，某些观念——如上帝、数学和自我的观念——是天赋的，通过纯粹理性获知。理性主义者指出必然真理，如’2 + 2 = 4’，似乎无需检验世界即可先验地知道。
4. The Problem of Perception | 知觉问题
Our immediate experience of the world is perceptual, but philosophy asks whether we perceive objects directly or indirectly. Direct realism claims that we directly perceive physical objects that exist independently of our minds. When you see a table, you are directly aware of the table itself.
我们对世界的直接经验是知觉性的，但哲学追问我们是直接还是间接地感知对象。直接实在论声称，我们直接感知到独立于心灵而存在的物理对象。当你看到一张桌子时，你直接意识到的是桌子本身。
Indirect realism, however, argues that we perceive mind-dependent sense data, which represent physical objects. The argument from illusion and hallucination supports this view: a straight stick in water appears bent, yet you do not perceive the stick directly but rather a bent sense-datum. John Locke’s distinction between primary qualities (e.g., shape, size) and secondary qualities (e.g., colour, taste) also advances indirect realism.
然而，间接实在论认为，我们感知到的是依赖心灵的感觉材料，它们表征着物理对象。幻觉与错觉论证支持了这一观点：一根直棍子放入水中看起来是弯的，但你并没有直接感知到棍子本身，而是感知到了弯曲的感觉材料。约翰·洛克关于第一性质（如形状、大小）和第二性质（如颜色、味道）的区分，也推进了间接实在论。
5. Realism and Idealism | 实在论与唯心论
Metaphysical realism asserts that an external world exists independently of our minds and perceptions. Most scientific and everyday thinking presupposes realism. The success of science in predicting experience is often used to argue that our perceptions correspond to a mind-independent reality.
形而上学的实在论断言，外部世界独立于我们的心灵和知觉而存在。大多数科学和日常思维都预设了实在论。科学在预测经验方面的成功常被用来论证，我们的知觉与一个独立于心灵的实在相对应。
Idealism, particularly in the work of George Berkeley, denies the existence of mind-independent matter. Berkeley argued ‘esse est percipi’—to be is to be perceived. For idealism, objects are collections of ideas that exist only as long as they are perceived, and they continue to exist because they are held in the mind of God.
唯心论，特别是在乔治·贝克莱的著作中，否认了独立于心灵的物质存在。贝克莱主张’存在即被感知’。对唯心论而言，对象是观念的集合，仅在它们被感知时才存在，而它们之所以继续存在，是因为被上帝的心灵所持存。
6. Mind and Body | 心身问题
The mind-body problem concerns the relationship between mental states (thoughts, emotions, consciousness) and physical states (brain processes, bodily behaviour). Substance dualism, famously defended by Descartes, holds that the mind and body are two distinct substances: a non-physical thinking thing and a physical extended thing.
心身问题关乎心理状态（思想、情感、意识）与物理状态（大脑过程、身体行为）之间的关系。笛卡尔所捍卫的实体二元论认为，心灵和身体是两种不同的实体：一个非物质的思维物和一个物质性的广延物。
Problems for dualism include the interaction problem: how can a non-physical mind cause physical effects if they are so different? Materialism (or physicalism) rejects dualism by claiming that mental states are identical with, or reducible to, brain states. Identity theory and functionalism are key materialist positions that Year 10 students should contrast with dualism.
二元论面临的问题包括交互难题：如果非物质的心灵与物质的身体截然不同，它是如何引起物理效应的？唯物主义（或物理主义）驳斥二元论，声称心理状态与大脑状态是同一的，或可还原为大脑状态。同一论和功能主义是 Year 10 学生需要与二元论对比的关键唯物主义立场。
7. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Determinism is the thesis that all events, including human actions, are causally determined by prior events and the laws of nature. If determinism is true, every choice you make was inevitable given the past and the laws. This seems to conflict with our everyday experience of free will.
决定论是这样一种论题：所有事件，包括人类行为，都由先前的事件与自然法则因果必然地决定。如果决定论为真，那么你做出的每一个选择，基于过去的状态和法则都是不可避免的。这似乎与我们日常体验到的自由意志相冲突。
Hard determinism accepts determinism and denies free will entirely, holding that moral responsibility is an illusion. Compatibilism (soft determinism) argues that free will is compatible with determinism if freedom is understood as acting according to your desires without external coercion. Libertarianism, by contrast, insists that we have genuine free will and that determinism is therefore false.
强硬决定论接受决定论，并完全否认自由意志，认为道德责任是一种幻觉。相容论（软决定论）则主张，如果自由被理解为在没有外部强制的情况下按照自己的欲望行事，那么自由意志与决定论是相容的。相反，自由意志论则坚持我们拥有真正的自由意志，因此决定论为假。
8. Arguments for God’s Existence | 上帝存在的论证
Philosophy of religion examines rational arguments for and against the existence of God. The ontological argument, proposed by Anselm, defines God as ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ and argues that God must exist in reality because a being that exists in reality is greater than a being that exists only in the mind.
宗教哲学审视支持与反对上帝存在的理性论证。安瑟伦提出的本体论论证，将上帝定义为’无法设想有比之更伟大者’，并论证上帝必然存在于现实中，因为一个在现实中存在的存在者，要比仅仅存在于心灵中的存在者更加伟大。
The teleological (design) argument points to the complexity and apparent purpose in the natural world, suggesting it is best explained by an intelligent designer. William Paley’s watchmaker analogy is a classic formulation: if you found a watch, you would infer a watchmaker; similarly, the complexity of the universe implies a divine designer.
目的论（设计）论证指出自然界中的复杂性及表面上的目的性，认为这最好由一个理智的设计者来解释。威廉·佩利的钟表匠类比是一个经典表述：如果你发现了一块手表，你会推断有一位钟表匠；同样，宇宙的复杂性暗示着一位神圣的设计者。
The cosmological argument, associated with Thomas Aquinas, begins from the fact that the universe exists and asks why there is something rather than nothing. It argues for a First Cause or necessary being that explains the existence of contingent things.
与托马斯·阿奎那相关联的宇宙论论证，从宇宙存在的事实出发，追问为什么有物存在而不是空无一物。它论证必须有一个第一因或必然存在者，来解释一切偶然事物的存在。
9. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
The logical problem of evil challenges the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good God. If such a God exists, He would want to prevent evil, know how to prevent it, and have the power to do so. Yet evil exists. Therefore, the argument concludes, such a God does not exist.
逻辑上的恶的问题挑战了一位全能、全知且全善的上帝的存在。如果这样一位上帝存在，他会想要阻止恶，知道如何阻止恶，并且有能力阻止恶。然而恶却存在。因此，该论证得出结论：这样的上帝并不存在。
Theodicies are attempts to justify God’s permission of evil. The free will defence argues that God gave humans free will because moral goodness requires freely chosen actions, and that it is logically impossible for God to create free beings who never choose evil. The soul-making theodicy, developed by John Hick, claims that evil and suffering are necessary for spiritual growth and the development of virtues.
神正论是为上帝允许恶存在而辩护的尝试。自由意志辩护论证说，上帝给予人类自由意志，因为道德的善要求自由选择的行为，而上帝要创造出永远不会选择恶的自由存在者，在逻辑上是不可能的。约翰·希克发展的灵魂塑造神正论声称，恶与苦难是灵魂成长与美德发展所必需的。
10. Ethical Theories: Utilitarianism | 伦理理论：功利主义
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory, most associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Its core principle is the Greatest Happiness Principle: actions are right as they tend to promote happiness (pleasure and the absence of pain), wrong as they tend to produce the reverse.
功利主义是一种后果主义伦理理论，主要与杰里米·边沁和约翰·斯图尔特·密尔相关联。其核心原则是最大幸福原则：能够促进幸福（快乐与无痛苦）的行为就是正确的，导致相反结果的行为就是错误的。
Bentham proposed a hedonic calculus to measure pleasures based on intensity, duration, certainty, and extent. Mill, however, introduced a qualitative distinction between higher pleasures (intellectual, moral) and lower pleasures (bodily), arguing that ‘it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.’ Act utilitarianism judges each action directly, while rule utilitarianism judges actions according to rules that, if generally followed, would maximise utility.
边沁提出了一套快乐计算法，根据强度、持续时长、确定性、范围等来衡量快乐。然而，密尔引入了质上的区分，将快乐分为高等快乐（智力与道德的）与低等快乐（身体的），并主张’宁可做一个不满足的人，也不做一头满足的猪’。行为功利主义直接评判每一个行为，而规则功利主义则根据那些如果普遍遵守就会最大化功利的原则来评判行为。
11. Kantian Ethics | 康德伦理学
Immanuel Kant’s deontological ethics is grounded in the concept of duty and the categorical imperative. Unlike utilitarianism, Kantianism judges actions by their intrinsic moral quality, not by their consequences. An action has moral worth only when it is done from duty, not merely in accordance with duty.
伊曼努尔·康德的义务论伦理以义务和定言命令的概念为基础。与功利主义不同，康德伦理学依据行为的内在道德性质而非后果来评判行为。一个行为只有当它是出于义务而做时，才具有道德价值，而不仅仅只是符合义务。
The first formulation of the categorical imperative is the universalisability test: ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ If you cannot consistently will that everyone act on your maxim, the action is impermissible. The second formulation, the formula of humanity, commands us to treat humanity, whether in ourselves or others, always as an end in itself and never merely as a means.
定言命令的第一条表述是可普遍化检验：’只按照你同时能够愿意它成为一条普遍法则的那个准则去行动。’如果你不能一贯地愿意所有人都按照你的准则行事，那么该行为就是不被允许的。第二条表述，即人性公式，要求我们将人性——无论是在自己身上还是在他人身上——总是同时当作目的，而绝不仅仅当作手段来对待。
12. Virtue Ethics and Moral Relativism | 美德伦理学与道德相对主义
Virtue ethics, inspired by Aristotle, shifts the focus from actions and rules to the character of the moral agent. The central question is not ‘What should I do?’ but ‘What kind of person should I be?’ Virtues are character traits that enable human flourishing (eudaimonia), and moral action is what the virtuous person would do.
美德伦理学，受到亚里士多德的启发，将焦点从行为与规则转向道德主体的品格。核心问题不是’我应该做什么？’，而是’我应该成为什么样的人？’美德是指那些能够促进人之繁荣（eudaimonia）的品格特质，而道德行为就是有德者会做出的行为。
Moral relativism, in contrast to objective theories like Kantianism and utilitarianism, holds that moral truths are not absolute but relative to cultures, societies, or individuals. Descriptive relativism observes that moral codes vary across cultures; meta-ethical relativism claims that there are no universal moral standards. This challenges students to consider whether practices like slavery, once widely accepted, could ever be objectively wrong.
与康德伦理学和功利主义等客观理论相反，道德相对主义认为道德真理不是绝对的，而是相对于文化、社会或个人而言的。描述性相对主义观察到不同文化中道德准则各不相同；元伦理相对主义则声称不存在普遍的道德标准。这挑战学生去思考，例如曾被广泛接受的蓄奴制，是否可能客观上是错误的。
Critics of relativism argue that it undermines the possibility of moral progress and makes intolerant practices immune to criticism simply because they are culturally endorsed. Year 10 students should evaluate these tensions as they refine their own ethical reasoning.
相对主义的批评者主张，它削弱了道德进步的可能性，并使那些仅仅因文化认可而存在的偏狭做法免于批评。Year 10 学生在完善自己的伦理推理时，应对这些张力进行评估。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
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